Growth Hormone Secretagogue Receptor 1a Research Articles

Ghrelin, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Mood Disorders: What Are the Connections?

Ghrelin is a gut peptide hormone associated with feeding behavior and energy homeostasis. Acylated ghrelin binds to the growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a subtype (GHS-R1a) in the hippocampus, leading to GH release from the anterior pituitary. However, in recent years, ghrelin and its receptor have also been implicated in other processes, including the regulation of cardiomyocyte function, muscle trophism, and bone metabolism. Moreover, GHS-R1a is distributed throughout the brain and is expressed in brain areas that regulate the stress response and emotional behavior. Consistently, a growing body of evidence supports the role of ghrelin in regulating stress response and mood. Stress has consistently been shown to increase ghrelin levels, and despite some inconsistencies, both human and rodent studies suggested antidepressant effects of ghrelin. Nevertheless, the precise mechanism by which ghrelin influences stress response and mood remains largely unknown. Intriguingly, ghrelin and GHS-R1a were consistently reported to exert anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neurotrophic effects both in vivo and in vitro, although this has never been directly assessed in relation to psychopathology. In the present review we will discuss available literature linking ghrelin with the stress response and depressive-like behavior in animal models as well as evidence describing the interplay between ghrelin and neuroinflammation/oxidative stress. Although further studies are required to understand the mechanisms involved in the action of ghrelin on mood, we hypothesize that the antiinflammatory and anti-oxidative properties of ghrelin may give a key contribution.

The growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a agonists, anamorelin and ipamorelin, inhibit cisplatin-induced weight loss in ferrets: Anamorelin also exhibits anti-emetic effects via a central mechanism

This study investigated whether ghrelin mimetics, namely anamorelin and ipamorelin, can alleviate weight loss and inhibition of feeding observed during acute and delayed phases of cisplatin-induced emesis in ferrets. The potential of anamorelin to inhibit electrical field stimulation (EFS)-induced contractions of isolated ferret ileum was compared with ipamorelin. In other experiments, ferrets were administered anamorelin (1–3 mg/kg), ipamorelin (1–3 mg/kg), or vehicle intraperitoneally (i.p.) 30 s before cisplatin (5 mg/kg, i.p.) and then every 24 h, and their behaviour was recorded for up to 72 h. Food and water consumption was measured every 24 h. The effect of anamorelin (10 µg) was also assessed following intracerebroventricular administration. Anamorelin and ipamorelin inhibited EFS-induced contractions of isolated ileum by 94.4 % (half-maximal inhibitory concentration [IC50]=14.0 µM) and 54.4 % (IC50=11.7 µM), respectively. Neither of compounds administered i.p. had any effect on cisplatin-induced acute or delayed emesis, but both inhibited associated cisplatin-induced weight loss on the last day of delayed phase (48–72 h) by approximately 24 %. Anamorelin (10 µg) administered intracerebroventricularly reduced cisplatin-induced acute emesis by 60 % but did not affect delayed emesis. It also improved food and water consumption by approximately 20 %–40 % during acute phase, but not delayed phase, and reduced associated cisplatin-induced weight loss during delayed phase by ∼23 %. In conclusion, anamorelin and ipamorelin administered i.p. had beneficial effects in alleviating cisplatin-induced weight loss during delayed phase, and these effects were seen when centrally administered anamorelin. Anamorelin inhibited cisplatin-induced acute emesis following intracerebroventricular but not intraperitoneal administration, suggesting that brain penetration is important for its anti-emetic mechanism of action.

The effects of ghrelin and LEAP-2 in energy homeostasis are modulated by thermoneutrality, high-fat diet and aging

PurposeLiver-expressed antimicrobial peptide 2 (LEAP-2) has been recently identified as the endogenous non-competitive allosteric antagonist of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR1a). In rodents, LEAP-2 blunts ghrelin-induced feeding and its plasma levels are modulated in response to nutritional status, being decreased upon fasting and increased in high-fat diet (HFD) fed mice. Clinical data support the regulation of circulating LEAP-2 by nutrient availability in humans. In this work, our primary objective was to examine the chronic effects of ghrelin and LEAP-2 administration on food intake, adiposity, and energy expenditure in young mice subjected to standard and HFD at both room temperature and at thermoneutrality. Furthermore, we aimed to assess the impact of these two hormones on aging mice.ResultsOur results indicate that LEAP-2 produces a significant decrease of body weight and adiposity, an increase in energy expenditure, and activation of the thermogenic program in white and brown adipose tissue depots. However, this effect is not maintained under HFD or under thermoneutral conditions and is only partially observed in aging mice.ConclusionIn summary our studies describe the central effects of LEAP-2 within distinct experimental contexts, and contribute to the comprehension of LEAP-2's role in energy metabolism.

Acylated Ghrelin Activates PI3K/mTOR Signaling Pathway by Promoting ThPOK Acetylation to Promote Milk Fat Synthesis in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells.

Ghrelin regulates diverse physiological activities. However, the effects of this hormone on the milk fat synthesis remain unknown. This study aimed to investigate the effect of acylated ghrelin (AG) on milk fat synthesis by modifying the expression (knockdown or overexpression) of growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR1a) and Th-inducing POK (ThPOK) in primary bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMECs). The results showed that AG significantly increased the triglyceride relative content from 260.83 ± 9.87 to 541.67 ± 8.38 in BMECs via GHSR1a. ThPOK functions as a key regulatory target downstream of AG, activating the PI3K and mTOR signaling pathways to promote milk fat synthesis in BMECs. Moreover, AG-regulated ThPOK by increasing the EP300 activity, which promoted ThPOK acetylation to protect it from proteasomal degradation. In conclusion, AG increases ThPOK acetylation and stabilizes ThPOK through GHSR1a, thereby activating the PI3K/mTOR signaling pathway and ultimately promoting the milk fat synthesis in BMECs.

Ghrelin receptor antagonism and satiety attenuate Pavlovian-instrumental transfer

Animals rely on learned cues to guide their behaviour for rewards such as food. The Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT) task can be used to investigate the influence of Pavlovian stimuli on instrumental responding. Ghrelin, an orexigenic peptide, and its receptor, growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1A (GHS-R1A), has received growing interest for its role in reward-motivated learning and behaviours. A significant population of GHS-R1A have been identified within the ventral tegmental area (VTA), a critical node in the mesolimbic reward circuit that is necessary for the expression of PIT. As ghrelin has been found to increase dopaminergic activity in the VTA, we predicted that GHS-R1A antagonism with JMV-2959 would attenuate PIT. Further, given the relationship between hunger levels and changes in ghrelin signalling, we sought to compare the effects GHS-R1A antagonism with those of satiety, hypothesizing parallel effects, with each attenuating PIT. Rats received daily sessions of Pavlovian and then instrumental training over 3 weeks. Across three experiments, we examined the effects of a shift to satiety, or treatment with the GHS-R1A antagonist JMV-2959, either peripherally or directly into the VTA. We found that presentations of a stimulus paired with food reward enhanced responding for food across all conditions, thus demonstrating the expected PIT effect. Further, GHS-R1A antagonism, both peripherally and within the VTA, as well as satiety significantly reduced the magnitude of the PIT effect compared to control conditions. These results clarify our understanding of ghrelin signalling in PIT and begin to elucidate the role of feeding-related peptides in the modulation of reward-related responding.

Hypobaric hypoxia induces iron mobilization from liver and spleen and increases serum iron via activation of ghrelin/GHSR1a/MAPK signalling pathway in mice

Hypobaric hypoxia (HH) exposure affects appetite and serum iron levels in both humans and animals. Thus, whether appetite-regulating ghrelin is involved in iron regulation under HH needs to be elucidated. In vivo, C57BL/6J mice were placed in a hypobaric chamber to establish a 6000-m-high altitude exposure animal model. In vitro, mouse primary hepatocytes and peritoneal macrophages were exposed to hypoxia (1% O2) to examine the effects of ghrelin on iron-regulating proteins. HH obviously reduced the body weight of mice and significantly increased the levels of erythrocytes, and also significantly enhanced the levels of serum iron and plasma ghrelin. However, iron content in the liver and spleen was decreased, while ferroportin (Fpn) expression was increased. Moreover, ghrelin significantly induced Fpn and pERK expression in both hepatocytes and macrophages under hypoxia, which were reversed by pretreatment with growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR1a) antagonist or pERK inhibitor. Our findings indicated that HH leads to decreased appetite and insufficient dietary intake, which may negatively regulate the levels of ghrelin. Furthermore, GHSR1a/ERK signalling pathway is further activated to upregulate the expression of Fpn, and then promoting iron mobilization both in the liver/hepatocytes and spleen/macrophages in mice. Thus, these results revealed that ghrelin may be a potential iron regulatory hormone, and raised the possibility of ghrelin as a promising therapeutic target against iron disorders under HH.

OR21-06 Growth Response Of Oral LUM-201 In OraGrowtH210 And OraGrowtH212 Trials In Idiopathic Pediatric Growth Hormone Deficiency (iPGHD): Combined Analysis Interim Analysis Data

Abstract Disclosure: M.J. Tansey: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. S.A. Bowden: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. A.N. Dauber: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. B. Wikiera: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. B. Pyrzak: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. A.T. Bossowski: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. E. Petriczko: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. R. Stawerska: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. E. Moszczynska: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. F. Cassorla: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Speaker; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. M.M. Feldt: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. A.J. Lunsford: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. M.E. Gottschalk: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. M. Marin: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. S.N. Nayak: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. S. Bhuvana: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. D.R. Repaske: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. L.A. Soyka: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. J.S. Fuqua: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. O. Escobar: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. D.A. Bowlby: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. P.Y. Fechner: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. E. Wiltshire: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. M. Harris: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. K.A. Wintergerst: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. A.R. Lafferty: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. B.S. Miller: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. P. Simm: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. A. Bruchey: Employee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. C. Smith: Employee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. D.B. Karpf: Employee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. J.C. McKew: Employee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. M.O. Thorner: Consulting Fee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Background: LUM-201 (ibutamoren), a growth hormone (GH) secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR1a) agonist, is a potent, long-acting investigational oral GH secretagogue currently studied in three Idiopathic Pediatric GH Deficiency (iPGHD) studies. The LUM-201 predictive enrichment marker (PEM) is used to identify patients diagnosed with iPGHD (peak stimulated GH >3<10 ng/mL) who are likely to respond to LUM-201. PEM positivity is defined as a baseline insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) level >30 ng/mL and a peak GH of ≥5 ng/mL in response to a single 0.8 mg/kg dose of LUM-201. Objectives: Report the growth response analyzing the combined interim analysis (IA) data from two Phase 2 trials studying LUM-201 at two different doses (1.6 mg/kg/day or 3.2 mg/kg/day). Methods: IA data from both studies were combined and analyzed for calculated annualized height velocity (AHV). Baseline demographics were analyzed for the two combined cohorts. Results: After 6 months of treatment with LUM-201, the calculated AHV (mean ±SD ) was 8.1±1.9 cm/year in the 1.6 mg/kg/day group and 8.0±1.5 cm/year in the 3.2 mg/kg/day group (N=15 in both groups). After 9 months of treatment, the calculated AHV was 7.8±1.7 cm/year in the 1.6 mg/kg/day group and 7.3±1.7 cm/year in the 3.2 mg/kg/day group (N=10 in both groups). After 12 months of treatment, the calculated AHV was 7.8±1.7 cm/year in the 1.6 mg/kg/day group and 7.4 ±1.2 cm/year in the 3.2 mg/kg/day group (N=6 in both groups). LUM-201 was well tolerated; no safety concerns were identified across the dose range in adverse events (AE) data, laboratory values, and ECG values. Conclusions: As the growth velocity was comparable for the two doses of oral LUM-201, this analysis of the combined IA data appears to strongly support 1.6 mg/kg/day as the optimal dose for the Phase 3 trial, as doubling the dose appeared to offer no meaningful improvement in efficacy. Final determination will await final full data set analysis of both studies. Presentation: Saturday, June 17, 2023

OR21-03 Dose Responsiveness Of LUM-201 As Measured By Acute GH Response And IGF-1 And Annualized Height Velocity (AHV) Measured At 6 Months In The Interim Analysis Of The OraGrowtH212 Study In Idiopathic Pediatric Growth Hormone Deficiency (iPGHD)

Abstract Disclosure: F. Cassorla: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Speaker; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. R. Román: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. M.L. Johnson: Consulting Fee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. A. Avila: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. G. Iñiguez: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. I. Baier: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. D. Said: Research Investigator; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. A. Bruchey: Employee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. C. Smith: Employee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. E.L. Brincks: Employee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. J.C. McKew: None. D.B. Karpf: Employee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. M.O. Thorner: Consulting Fee; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Stock Owner; Self; Lumos Pharma, Inc. Objective: To evaluate acute GH, IGF-1, AHV at 6 mos of treatment of iPGHD subjects. Background: LUM-201 is an investigational oral GH secretagogue (GHS) currently in 3 Phase 2 iPGHD trials. The LUM-201 predictive enrichment marker (PEM) may be used to identify patients previously diagnosed with iPGHD who are likely to respond to LUM-201. PEM positivity is defined as a baseline IGF-1 level >30 ng/mL and a peak GH of ≥5 ng/mL in response to a single 0.8 mg/kg LUM-201 dose. LUM-201, a potent, durable oral GHS agonist, acts on the GHS Receptor 1a in the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary. LUM-201 enhances the amplitude of endogenous GH pulsatile release over 24 hrs, while also acting as a functional antagonist of the somatostatin receptor. The increased IGF-1 and GH reach the growth plates and promote linear growth. Three advantages of LUM-201 as a potential therapeutic for iPGHD are that it is a small oral tablet, it enhances natural GH pulses over 24 hr, and GH release is subject to the endogenous negative feedback mechanisms, so serum IGF-1 is expected to remain within the normal range. Method: Each subject is screened with the PEM test, which includes determining the max GH concentration in the first 90 min after a single 0.8 mg/kg dose of LUM-201. Additionally, each of these PEM positive subjects was assessed for increasing doses of LUM-201 to induce further acute GH secretion on their first day of therapeutic dosing with either a 1.6 or 3.2 mg/kg dose. The first 10 subjects with 6 months of growth on LUM-201 (5 subjects on each dose) were evaluated on their IGF-1 levels and AHVs. Results: The mean (+SD, n) peak GH for the 0.8 mg/kg dose was 26.04 ng/mL (+10.6, 22), at the 1.6 mg/kg dose 35.50 ng/mL (+17.5, 9), and at a 3.2 mg/kg dose 38.34 ng/mL (+10.4, 8). Serum IGF-1 levels of the 5 subjects in each cohort were monitored at baseline and at 6 months of treatment. The mean (+ SD) serum IGF-1 levels showed a change from baseline of 84.6 ng/mL (+30.1) at 6 months for the 1.6 mg/kg cohort and 113.8 (+49.9) at the 3.2 mg/kg dose. The pretreatment HV were 4.9 (+ 0.4) at 1.6 mg/kg and 4.3 (+ 0.9) cm/year at 3.2 mg/kg respectively and the respective mean AHVs (+ SD) at 6 months were 7.14 cm/year (+0.65) and 8.60 cm/year (+1.22). The acute GH response demonstrated a dose response between the 0.8 and 1.6 mg/kg doses, but the 1.6 and 3.2 mg/kg doses produced similar GH responses. These two doses of LUM-201 induced comparable changes from baseline values of IGF-1 after 6 months of treatment. In addition to these pharmacodynamic changes, the AHVs generated from each dose also appear similar. Conclusion: LUM-201 generated the expected AHV in this naive iPGHD population. The dose-response for GH secretion after an initial dose of LUM-201 and increases from baseline of serum IGF-1 after 6 months of treatment suggest that 1.6 mg/kg/day is the optimum dose for efficacy and durability. The results from this small study are corroborated by the larger OraGrowtH210 study data. Presentation: Saturday, June 17, 2023

Ghrelin as a Biomarker of "Immunometabolic Depression" and Its Connection with Dysbiosis.

Ghrelin, a gastrointestinal peptide, is an endogenous ligand of growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR1a), which is mainly produced by X/A-like cells in the intestinal mucosa. Beyond its initial description as a growth hormone (GH) secretagogue stimulator of appetite, ghrelin has been revealed to have a wide range of physiological effects, for example, the modulation of inflammation; the improvement of cardiac performance; the modulation of stress, anxiety, taste sensation, and reward-seeking behavior; and the regulation of glucose metabolism and thermogenesis. Ghrelin secretion is altered in depressive disorders and metabolic syndrome, which frequently co-occur, but it is still unknown how these modifications relate to the physiopathology of these disorders. This review highlights the increasing amount of research establishing the close relationship between ghrelin, nutrition, microbiota, and disorders such as depression and metabolic syndrome, and it evaluates the ghrelinergic system as a potential target for the development of effective pharmacotherapies.

Insights on discovery, efficacy, safety and clinical applications of ghrelin receptor agonist capromorelin in veterinary medicine.

Growth hormone and insulin like growth factor-1 plays an important role in the regulation of body composition and metabolism. Growth Hormone is released from the pituitary through a specific G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) called growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a expressed in the hypothalamus. Ghrelin is a peptide hormone released from the cells in the stomach, which stimulates appetite and food intake in mammals, regulates gut motility, gastric acid secretion, taste sensation, circadian rhythm, learning and memory, oxidative stress, autophagy, glucose metabolism etc. When the release of the endogenous ligand GHSR-1a, i.e., ghrelin is malfunctioned or stopped, external substitutes are administrated to induce the stimulation of growth hormone and appetite. A class of compound known as ghrelin receptor agonists are developed as an external substitute of ghrelin for regulation and stimulation of growth hormone in frailty, for body weight gain, muscle mass gain, prevention of cachexia and for the treatment of chronic fatigue syndromes. Capromorelin [Entyce™ (Aratana Therapeutics, Leawood, KS, USA)] is the only FDA (Food and Drug Administration) approved (May 2016) drug used for stimulating appetite in dogs and was marketed in the fall of 2017. In 2020, USFDA approved Capromorelin [Elura™ (Elanco US Inc.)] for the management of weight loss in chronic kidney disease of cats. This article reviews the discovery of the ghrelin receptor agonist capromorelin, its efficacy, safety, clinical applications and aims to delineate its further scope of use in veterinary practice.

Discovery of Ghrelin(1-8) Analogues with Improved Stability and Functional Activity for PET Imaging.

The highest affinity ghrelin-based analogue for fluorine-18 positron emission tomography, [Inp1,Dpr3(6-FN),1Nal4,Thr8]ghrelin(1-8) amide (1), has remarkable subnanomolar receptor affinity (IC50 = 0.11 nM) toward the growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR). However, initial in vivo PET imaging and biodistribution of [18F]1 in mice demonstrated an unfavorable pharmacokinetic profile with rapid clearance and accumulation in liver and intestinal tissue, prompting concerns about the metabolic stability of this probe. The aims of the present study were to examine the proteolytic stability of ghrelin analogue 1 in the presence of blood and liver enzymes, structurally modify the peptide to improve stability without impeding the strong binding affinity, and measure the presently unknown functional activity of ghrelin(1-8) analogues. The in vitro stability and metabolite formation of 1 in human serum and liver S9 fraction revealed a metabolic soft spot between amino acids Leu5 and Ser6 in the peptide sequence. A focused library of ghrelin(1-8) analogues was synthesized and evaluated in a structure-activity-stability relationship study to further understand the structural importance of the residues at these positions in the context of stability and receptor affinity. The critical nature of l-stereochemistry at position 5 was identified and substitution of Ser6 with l-2,3-diaminopropionic acid led to a novel ligand with substantially improved in vitro stability while maintaining subnanomolar GHSR affinity. Despite the highly modified nature of these analogues compared to human ghrelin, ghrelin(1-8) analogues were found to recruit all G protein subtypes (Gαq/11/13/i1/oB) known to associate with GHSR as well as β-arrestins with low micromolar to nanomolar potencies. The study of these analogues demonstrates the ability to balance desirable ligand properties, including affinity, stability, and potency to produce well-rounded candidate molecules for further in vivo evaluation.

Quinpirole ameliorates nigral dopaminergic neuron damage in Parkinson’s disease mouse model through activating GHS-R1a/D2R heterodimers

Growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHS-R1a) is an important G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that regulates a variety of functions by binding to ghrelin. It has been shown that the dimerization of GHS-R1a with other receptors also affects ingestion, energy metabolism, learning and memory. Dopamine type 2 receptor (D2R) is a GPCR mainly distributed in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), substantia nigra (SN), striatum and other brain regions. In this study we investigated the existence and function of GHS-R1a/D2R heterodimers in nigral dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease (PD) models in vitro and in vivo. By conducting immunofluorescence staining, FRET and BRET analyses, we confirmed that GHS-R1a and D2R could form heterodimers in PC-12 cells and in the nigral dopaminergic neurons of wild-type mice. This process was inhibited by MPP+ or MPTP treatment. Application of QNP (10 μM) alone significantly increased the viability of MPP+-treated PC-12 cells, and administration of quinpirole (QNP, 1 mg/kg, i.p. once before and twice after MPTP injection) significantly alleviated motor deficits in MPTP-induced PD mice model; the beneficial effects of QNP were abolished by GHS-R1a knockdown. We revealed that the GHS-R1a/D2R heterodimers could increase the protein levels of tyrosine hydroxylase in the SN of MPTP-induced PD mice model through the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) signaling pathway, ultimately promoting dopamine synthesis and release. These results demonstrate a protective role for GHS-R1a/D2R heterodimers in dopaminergic neurons, providing evidence for the involvement of GHS-R1a in PD pathogenesis independent of ghrelin.

Ghrelin signaling in the cerebellar cortex enhances GABAergic transmission onto Purkinje cells

Ghrelin, an orexigenic peptide ligand for growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHS-R1a), occurs not only in the stomach but also in the brain, and modulates neuronal activity and synaptic efficacy. Previous studies showed that GHS-R1a exists in the cerebellum, and ghrelin facilitates spontaneous firing of Purkinje cells (PCs). However, the effects of ghrelin on cerebellar GABAergic transmission have yet to be elucidated. We found that ghrelin enhanced GABAergic transmission between molecular layer interneurons (MLIs) and PCs using electrophysiological recordings in mouse cerebellar slices. This finding was consistent with the possibility that blocking synaptic transmission enhanced the ghrelin-induced facilitation of PC firing. Ghrelin profoundly increased the frequency of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) in PCs without affecting miniature or stimulation-evoked IPSCs, whereas it significantly facilitated spontaneous firing of MLIs. This facilitation of MLI spiking disappeared during treatments with blockers of GHS-R1a, type 1 transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC1) channels and KCNQ channels. These results suggest that both activating TRPC1 channels and inhibiting KCNQ channels occur downstream the ghrelin-GHS-R1a signaling pathway probably in somatodendritic sites of MLIs. Thus, ghrelin can control PC firing directly and indirectly via its modulation of GABAergic transmission, thereby impacting activity in cerebellar circuitry.

Initial Pharmacological Characterization of a Major Hydroxy Metabolite of PF-5190457: Inverse Agonist Activity of PF-6870961 at the Ghrelin Receptor.

Preclinical and clinical studies have identified the ghrelin receptor [growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR)1a] as a potential target for treating alcohol use disorder. A recent phase 1a clinical trial of a GHSR1a antagonist/inverse agonist, PF-5190457, in individuals with heavy alcohol drinking identified a previously undetected major hydroxy metabolite of PF-5190457, namely PF-6870961. Here, we further characterized PF-6870961 by screening for off-target interactions in a high-throughput screen and determined its in vitro pharmacodynamic profile at GHSR1a through binding and concentration-response assays. Moreover, we determined whether the metabolite demonstrated an in vivo effect by assessing effects on food intake in male and female rats. We found that PF-6870961 had no off-target interactions and demonstrated both binding affinity and inverse agonist activity at GHSR1a. In comparison with its parent compound, PF-5190457, the metabolite PF-6870961 had lower binding affinity and potency at inhibiting GHSR1a-induced inositol phosphate accumulation. However, PF-6870961 had increased inhibitory potency at GHSR1a-induced β-arrestin recruitment relative to its parent compound. Intraperitoneal injection of PF-6870961 suppressed food intake under conditions of both food restriction and with ad libitum access to food in male and female rats, demonstrating in vivo activity. The effects of PF-6870961 on food intake were abolished in male and female rats knockout for GHSR, thus demonstrating that its effects on food intake are in fact mediated by the GHSR receptor. Our findings indicate that the newly discovered major hydroxy metabolite of PF-5190457 may contribute to the overall activity of PF-5190457 by demonstrating inhibitory activity at GHSR1a. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Antagonists or inverse agonists of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR)1a have demonstrated substantial potential as therapeutics for alcohol use disorder. We here expand understanding of the pharmacology of one such GHSR1a inverse agonist, PF-5190457, by studying the safety and pharmacodynamics of its major hydroxy metabolite, PF-6870961. Our data demonstrate biased inverse agonism of PF-6870961 at GHSR1a and provide new structure-activity relationship insight into GHSR1a inverse agonism.

Establishment of a Cell Line Stably Expressing the Growth Hormone Secretagogue Receptor to Identify Crocin as a Ghrelin Agonist.

The growth hormone secretagogue receptor-1a (GHSR1a) is the endogenous receptor for ghrelin. Activation of GHSR1a participates in many physiological processes including energy homeostasis and eating behavior. Due to its transitory half-life, the efficacy of ghrelin treatment in patients is restricted; hence the development of new adjuvant therapy is an urgent need. This study aimed to establish a cell line stably expressing GHSR1a, which could be employed to screen potential ghrelin agonists from natural compounds. First, by means of lentiviral transduction, the genome of a human HEK293T cell was modified, and a cell platform stably overexpressing GHSR1a was successfully established. In this platform, GHSR1a was expressed as a fusion protein tagged with mCherry, which allowed the monitoring of the dynamic cellular distribution of GHSR1a by fluorescent microscopy. Subsequently, the authenticity of the GHSR1a mediated signaling was further characterized by using ghrelin and teaghrelin, two molecules known to stimulate GHSR1a. The results indicated that both ghrelin and teaghrelin readily activated GHSR1a mediated signaling pathways, presumably via increasing phosphorylation levels of ERK. The specific GHSR1a signaling was further validated by using SP-analog, an antagonist of GHSR1a as well as using a cell model with the knockdown expression of GHSR1a. Molecular modeling predicted that crocin might be a potential ghrelin agonist, and this prediction was further confirmed by the established platform.

OR22-2 Ghrelin Receptor (GHSR1a) Functional Selectivity As A Novel Pharmacotherapeutic Strategy To Normalize Dysfunctional Metabolic Homeostasis

Abstract The growth hormone secretagogue receptor-1a (GHSR1a) is the cognate G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) for the orexigenic agonist ghrelin and the anorexigenic antagonist liver-expressed antimicrobial peptide-2 (LEAP2). The ghrelinergic system is activated under conditions of caloric restriction and/or environmental stress, and it acts pleiotropically to restore physiological homeostasis by modulating both central and peripheral metabolic processes, including food-seeking behavior, glycemia, energy utilization/nutrient partitioning, and cardiovascular function. Consequently, ghrelin/GHSR1a signaling provides an accessible and desirable pharmacological target. GHSR1a-mediated physiological responses rely upon distinct G protein- and β-arrestin (βarr)-dependent signaling pathways, a property referred to as 'functional selectivity' or 'biased signaling.' Thus, when treating disorders of metabolic dysfunction (e.g., obesity, type II diabetes, neurodegenerative disease), a pharmacotherapeutic strategy that modulates 'biased' GHSR1a signaling may uncouple desired therapeutic outcomes from unwanted side effects. For example, animal models bearing G protein- or βarr-biasing GHSR1a mutations may express differences in orexigenic and glucoregulatory effects that are signaling pathway-dependent, and our group has demonstrated that GHSR1a antagonism blunts cocaine-induced neuroadaptive behaviors via a mechanism requiring βarr2 in dopaminergic neurons (Toth et al., 2016, Synapse). Based on these findings and the principle of ligand functional selectivity, we sought to identify new GHSR1a drug candidates that could distinguish between G protein and βarr pathways. We discovered a GHSR1a-selective, G protein-biased agonist — N8279 (NCATS-SM8864) — based on a novel chemotype. Comprehensive pharmacological analysis revealed that N8279 elicits potent and biased Gαq activity at both the apo- and ghrelin-bound GHSR1a. Molecular modeling coupled with mutagenesis and medical chemistry supports that N8279 signals through the GHSR1a via a unique extended binding mode requiring the extracellular loop 2 and thereby, enables preferential signaling through the Gαq pathway over alternative G proteins (Gαi∕o, Gα12∕13) and βarr2. Critically, N8279 is readily brain penetrant in mice, exhibits advantageous pharmacokinetics, and attenuates aberrant dopaminergic behaviors in both genetic and pharmacological mouse models of hyperdopaminergia. Our findings together provide important insights into mechanisms governing GPCR signaling and illustrate how functional selectivity might be leveraged to develop GHSR1a pharmacotherapeutics to normalize pathological disruptions of metabolic homeostasis. Presentation: Monday, June 13, 2022 11:15 a.m. - 11:30 a.m.

Ghrelin Downregulates Lipopolysaccharide/ Leptin-Induced MUC5AC Expression in Human Nasal Epithelial Cells.

Obesity, which induces chronic low-grade systemic inflammation in the human body, is a known risk factor for various diseases. Recent studies have shown associations between various otorhinolaryngological diseases and obesity. In particular, inflammatory sinonasal diseases have been found to be strongly associated with obesity-related proinflammatory mediators. Many studies have been conducted to identify therapeutic agents for controlling obesity-related inflammatory airway diseases. Ghrelin, an endogenous peptide from the stomach, has anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects in a wide range of tissues. However, the effect of ghrelin on the regulation of mucus secretion has not yet been studied in the human nasal mucosa. Therefore, we investigated the effects of ghrelin on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/leptin-mediated MUC5AC expression and mechanisms involved in human nasal epithelial cells (HNEpCs). In HNEpCs, the effect and signaling pathways of ghrelin on LPS/leptin-induced MUC5AC expression were examined using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, real-time polymerase chain reaction, enzyme immunoassays, Western blotting, and immunofluorescence staining. Growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR1a) was expressed in the HNEpCs. Ghrelin downregulated LPS/leptin-induced MUC5AC expression, which was abolished by D-Lys-3-growth hormone-releasing peptide 6 (D-Lys-3-GHRP-6). Ghrelin significantly inhibited LPS/leptin-activated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). These ghrelin-mediated changes in MAPK activation were abolished by D-Lys-3-GHRP-6. These. showed that ghrelin inhibits LPS/leptin-induced MUC5AC overexpression by modulating the ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK pathways in HNEpCs. These findings suggest that ghrelin is a potential therapeutic agent for treating obesity-related inflammatory sinonasal diseases.

WITHDRAWN: Increased growth hormone secretagogue receptor-1a (GHSR-1a) in hypothalamus during olanzapine treatment in rats

WITHDRAWN: Increased growth hormone secretagogue receptor-1a (GHSR-1a) in hypothalamus during olanzapine treatment in rats

Acylated ghrelin suppresses doxorubicin-induced testicular damage and improves sperm parameters in rats via activation of Nrf2 and mammalian target of rapamycin.

Exogenous administration of acylated ghrelin (AG) afforded reproductive protective effect in several animal models but not in those treated with doxorubicin (DOX). This study evaluated the protective effect of AG against DOX-induced testicular damage and impairment in sperm parameters in rats and examined the potential mechanisms of action. Adult male rats were divided into five groups (n = 8/each) as control, control + AG (40 nmol/kg/day; subcutaneous), DOX (10 mg/kg/day 1; intraperitoneal [i.p.]), DOX + AG, and DOX + AG + brusatol (an Nrf2 inhibitor) (2 mg/kg/every 3 days; i.p.). The treatment regimen continued for 65 days. AG prevented testicular damage and apoptosis; increased sperm count, motility, and viability; and reduced the number of abnormal sperms. It also increased their circulatory levels of AG, des-acylated ghrelin (DAG), and AG/DAG ratio and the testicular mRNA levels of ghrelin and growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a Concomitantly, AG increased serum and testicular testosterone levels, reduced serum levels of the follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone, and upregulated the testicular protein levels of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in DOX-treated rats. In the testes of the control and DOX-treated rats, AG increased the phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin and stimulated the levels of glutathione and superoxide dismutase, as well as the nuclear activation of Nrf2. All these effects were completely prevented by co-treatment with brusatol. AG replacement therapy could be a novel strategy to prevent reproductive toxicity in cancer patients.

Serum Ghrelin in a Sample of Egyptian Epileptic Patients

Ghrelin is a multifunctional hormone constituted of 28 amino acids, which is the endogenous ligand of the synthetic growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHS-R) ligands. Ghrelin is expressed in different tissues including the central nervous system (CNS). In addition, circulating ghrelin can access different structures of CNS such as hippocampus and ventral tegmental area. Ghrelin has various neuroprotective properties, and it appears to be related to memory retention and formation. In Rolandic epilepsy, although many changes in the physiology of hormones in the neuroendocrine system of patients can occur, the causes of these changes have not been fully elucidated. There are also relations between seizure activity and stages of sleep, which has been shown to affect both endocrine function and sleep. The purpose of this study was to evaluate serum levels of ghrelin in a sample of Egyptian epileptic patients and to evaluate its possible correlations with clinical findings. A total of 60 patients (age: 6.5±1.9) currently receiving antiepileptic drug therapy for Rolandicepilepsy were studied. The control group consisted of 60 healthy volunteers (age: 6.6±2.1) matched for age and gender. In all participants, serum levels of ghrelin were measured using ELISA technique. In the Rolandic epilepsy patients, the mean serum ghrelin level was 175.8±49.1pg/ml, and this was significantly lower than the control group’s level of 445.7±151.4pg/ml (p < 0.001). In conclusion, the significant lower ghrelin serum level in patients with Rolandic epilepsy may support the hypothesis of ghrelin’s antiepilepticpotential and neuroprotective actions.