Groundwater In India Research Articles

Imprints of seawater intrusion on groundwater quality of coastal region of Pudukkottai district, India: An integrated approach

Climate change and groundwater overexploitation endanger the sustainability of groundwater in India, particularly in the coastal region of Tamil Nadu. The increasing population, agricultural and industrial development, raised the demand for groundwater in the Coastal area of Pudukottai District, Tamil Nadu. Seawater intrusion establishes a challenging environment for freshwater management in coastal areas. A total of 64 groundwater samples were collected from different places, including borewells and open wells. The seawater intrusion is evaluated using the statistical method and physiochemical analysis such as water indices, ionic ratio and hydrochemical facies. As per the results of the groundwater quality index, 93% of the samples were not suitable for drinking as the examined parameter exceeded the Indian Standards. Piper’s diagram classify the Coastal groundwater into mixed Ca<sup>2+</sup>-Na<sup>+</sup>-HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>, Na<sup>+</sup>- HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> and Na<sup>+</sup>-Cl<sup>-</sup> type as the dominant. As per the seawater mixing index, 78% of the groundwater samples were affected by seawater intrusion. Further, the results of the ionic ratio (Na<sup>+</sup>/Cl<sup>-</sup>, Mg<sup>2+</sup>/Cl<sup>-</sup>, Ca<sup>2+</sup>/Mg<sup>2+</sup>, Ca<sup>2+</sup>/SO<sub>4</sub>, Ca<sup>2+</sup>/HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>) identify the salinization influence in the groundwater. The thematic maps created with the QGIS platform effectively to define the area of seawater intrusion. This study contributes to establishing a firm basis for decision-makers to enhance coastal groundwater management.

Comparative assessment of fluoride and arsenic mobilization mechanisms among the groundwater of the major affected river basins of India

ABSTRACT The high exposure of fluoride and arsenic in the groundwater of India is a serious challenge that is currently threatening human health, agriculture, livestock, and livelihood. The increased dependency on groundwater due to monsoonal uncertainties amplifies the risk by several folds. Due to the high population density in the affected regions, policies on prevention, monitoring, and mitigation have become extremely challenging to implement. The pursuit of improved human health in the affected regions cannot be completed until and unless there is sufficient urbanization and industrialization to support the livelihood, which again aggravates the situation due to improper disposal of anthropogenic contaminants owing to the lack of knowledge about the natural cycle of contaminants. The present review article is an attempt to understand the problem of fluoride and arsenic in the scenario of Indian floodplains by first explaining the globally identified mobilization mechanisms of these contaminants and then developing a compendium of knowledge through which the risk on the Indian floodplains can be analysed. Then the study compares the similarity/dissimilarity in the enrichment mechanism followed by a detailed investigation of the available mitigation techniques. In totality, the present study adds a new dimension to our understanding of the risk due to contaminants.

Pan India fluoride hazard assessment in groundwater

Fluoride (F¯) contamination in groundwater in India has gained global attention due to human health hazards. India’s hydrogeological heterogeneity, spatio-temporal variability of F¯, and health hazards due to geogenic and geo-environmental control pose unique challenges. Addressing these with only a single region-specific study is not possible. Therefore, this study provides an in-depth, holistic analysis of pan India F¯ contamination, controlling factors, and health hazards using a coupled advanced geostatistical and geospatial approach. Alarming F¯ contaminations are identified in Rajasthan, Telangana, Western Andhra Pradesh, Eastern Karnataka, Parts of Haryana, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar, and Chhattisgarh. Probabilistic health-risk evaluation using hot-spot, showed similar spatio-temporal distribution of F¯ contamination. The hazard quotient (HQ) for high F¯ shows more adversity to children than adults. Nationally, 8.65 % and 7.10 % of pre- and post-monsoon sites exceed the recommended safe limit of 1.50 mg/L. The highest average F¯ concentration is in Rajasthan. Very high-risk skeletal fluorosis is possible at around ≤ 2 %, whereas dental caries due to deficiency in F¯ concentration is approximately 40 %. A decisive hierarchy of lithology, geomorphology, soils, and lineaments control are identified on F¯ contamination. Climatic conditions are pivotal in governing all these controlling variables. Thus, in arid/semi-arid dry western regions, F¯ contamination is much higher than in the humid areas. Integration of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis with the results can aid policymakers and government authorities in achieving sustainable remedial measures for future adaptability.

Summer Monsoon Drying Accelerates India's Groundwater Depletion Under Climate Change

AbstractGroundwater in north India remains a vital food and water security resource for more than one billion people. Both summer monsoon drying, and winter warming pose considerable challenges for rapidly declining groundwater. However, their impacts on irrigation water demands and groundwater storage under the observed and projected future climate remain unexplored. Using in situ observations, satellite data, and a hydrological model that considers the role of irrigation and groundwater pumping, we show that summer monsoon drying and winter warming accelerate groundwater depletion in north India during the observed climate, which will continue in the projected future climate. Summer monsoon precipitation has significantly (P‐value = 0.04) declined (∼8%) while winters have become warmer in north India during 1951–2021. Both satellite (GRACE/GRACE‐FO) and hydrological model‐based estimates show a rapid groundwater depletion (∼1.5 cm/year) in north India with a net loss of 450 km3 of groundwater during 2002–2021. The summer monsoon drying followed by winter warming cause a substantial reduction in groundwater storage due to reduced groundwater recharge and enhanced pumping to meet irrigation demands. Summer monsoon drying and winter warming will continue to affect groundwater storage in north India in the future. For instance, summer monsoon drying (10%–15% deficit for near‐far periods) followed by substantial winter warming (1–4°C) in the future will further accelerate groundwater depletion by increasing (6%–20%) irrigation water demands and reducing groundwater recharge (6%–12%). Groundwater sustainability measures including reducing groundwater abstraction and enhancing the groundwater recharge during the summer monsoon seasons are needed to ensure future agricultural production.

Navigating India's groundwater crisis: legal and institutional perspectives on regulation and conservation

ABSTRACT The rate of groundwater extraction has seen an exponential rise in India over the past few decades. Several districts in the country face groundwater depletion and contamination issues, threatening agricultural and domestic usage. The overexploitation of the resource can be attributed to the sowing of water-intensive crops, distortionary subsidies, the absence of incentives, asymmetrical information, and regulatory bottlenecks. This paper presents a comparative analysis of the experiences of various states of India in regulating groundwater extraction. It discusses both the legal and institutional components of the current framework and explores groundwater conservation policies from both the demand and supply sides. The paper highlights the issues of zoning and registration of wells, the promotion of water-saving practices, the implementation of recharge projects for aquifers and wells, and the improvement of groundwater governance as potential solutions to alleviate the ongoing crisis. Furthermore, the paper emphasises the importance of sustainable management, community engagement, and regulatory frameworks to tackle issues like groundwater depletion. Lastly, it suggests actionable steps for policymakers to promote sustainable practices and ensure a secure future for India's groundwater resources.

Decoding uranium variation over the Indian peninsula through leveraging standardized precipitation evapotranspiration indices and groundwater level fluctuations

The present study aims to predict the concentration of uranium (U) in groundwater in India by utilizing water quantity indicators, such as Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI), Standardised Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), and Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) based groundwater levels. The study adopts a multi-scale approach, ranging from state-level to agroclimatic zones. The findings indicate that the highest levels of U (101–500 μg.L−1), which surpass the World Health Organization (WHO) prescribed limit of 30 μg.L−1 for drinking water, are primarily concentrated in India's plateau and hills regions. The GRACE data map portrays a downward trend in groundwater levels throughout India, with the mid-Gangetic plains experiencing the most significant decline. The meteorological aspect of the study, as indicated by SPI and SPEI, reveals that the plateau and hills region is experiencing a decline in rainfall. The SPEI further underscores the grim picture of decreasing precipitation in northern India. Additionally, the study employs cluster analysis to cluster states according to the division of agro-climatic zones. Lastly, the study employs a random forest algorithm to assess the relative importance of each predictor and predict U concentration under the trinity of precipitation, extraction, and evaporation. The most significant contribution of this work is to identify the hotspots in India that require the most attention in terms of U toxicity owing to groundwater decline. Overall, this study highlights the need for immediate attention to mitigate the adverse impacts of U contamination and aims at sensitizing the stakeholders towards the compelling need to fulfil SDG-3 (health aspects due to U hazard) and SDG-6 (groundwater over-exploitation and deteriorating water quality).

Impact of Agricultural Practices on Nitrate Pollution in Groundwater in India

Purpose: The aim of the study was to examine impact of agricultural practices on nitrate pollution in groundwater in India Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: a significant environmental concern with far-reaching implications for human health, ecosystem integrity, and water resource management. It is evident that agricultural activities such as fertilizer application, irrigation methods, and land management practices play a pivotal role in exacerbating nitrate contamination of groundwater. The studies highlighted the complex interactions between agricultural activities and hydrological processes, elucidating the pathways through which nitrates migrate from soil to groundwater. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Diffuse Pollution Theory, Hydrological Connectivity Theory & Sustainable Agriculture Theory may be used to anchor future studies on impact of agricultural practices on nitrate pollution in groundwater in India. Encourage the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices that minimize nitrate pollution while maintaining agricultural productivity. This includes promoting precision agriculture techniques, cover cropping, and integrated nutrient management systems to optimize fertilizer use and reduce nitrate leaching. Strengthen regulations and enforcement mechanisms to limit nitrate pollution from agricultural activities. This may include setting stringent water quality standards for nitrate concentrations in groundwater and implementing monitoring programs to assess compliance.

UNDERSTANDING GROUNDWATER DEPLETION IN INDIA: ASSESSING RISK THRESHOLDS AND ANALYSING CAUSATIVE FACTORS

Although hidden below the Earth’s surface, groundwater makes up 99% of Earth’s liquid fresh water and plays an important role in the water cycle. Rivers, lakes and wetlands are surface manifestations of groundwater, exchanging flow with the groundwater reservoir that feeds them when they need water and takes some of their flow when surface water is in excess. Groundwater also controls many features on the Earth’s surface. The depth of the water table is partly responsible for different plant species occupying different positions along the slopes from hill to valley, as only the drought-tolerant plants can live on dry hillsides and water-tolerant plants live near streams. Dissolution of carbonate rocks by flowing groundwater creates caves and sinkholes. In desert environments, groundwater discharge forms oases, which provide habitats for animals and plants. Groundwater provides drinking water entirely or in part for as much as 50% of the global population and accounts for 43% of all water used for irrigation. Worldwide, 2.5 billion people depend solely on groundwater resources to satisfy their basic daily water needs. The Earth’s population of nearly 8 billion in 2020 is expected to reach 11 billion by 2100. Humans will have to learn to produce sufficient food without destroying the soil, water and climate. This has been called the greatest challenge humanity has faced. Sustainable management of groundwater is at the heart of the solution. Scientific understanding and proper management of groundwater is essential because groundwater can alleviate the problem if we seek its responsible use and replenishment. Modern scientific measurements show that many of the major aquifers (groundwater reservoirs) of the world are being depleted. Such depletion can lead to a decrease in stream flow, drying of springs or wetlands, loss of vegetation, water-level declines in wells, and land subsidence. Yet another threat to groundwater is pollution resulting from human activity, generating chemicals and wastes that have leaked into the subsurface. Pollution degrades the quality of groundwater and poses a threat to human and ecological health. As the human population grows, more demand will be placed on groundwater, a vast, but finite, resource. The need for understanding our groundwater systems and thoughtfully managing them within the constraints of the hydrologic cycle is greater than ever. In this paper, our primary objective is to examine the history of the water crisis in India, critical risk tipping points and delve into the analysis of how we arrived at the current state of groundwater depletion, exploring the specific conditions and factors that have led us here. Furthermore, we will project the trajectory of this situation and assess where we are headed. Most importantly, we will outline the vision for the future that we aim to craft, considering the well-being of the next generations and the sustainability of India's groundwater resources.

High resolution prediction and explanation of groundwater depletion across India

Food production in much of the world relies on groundwater resources. In many regions, groundwater levels are declining due to a combination of anthropogenic extraction, localized meteorological and geological characteristics, and climate change. Groundwater in India is characteristic of this global trend, with an agricultural sector that is highly dependent on groundwater and increasingly threatened by extraction far in excess of recharge. The complexity of inputs makes groundwater depletion highly heterogeneous across space and time. However, modeling this heterogeneity has thus far proven difficult. Using two ensemble tree-based regression models, we predict district level seasonal groundwater dynamics to an accuracy of R 2 = 0.4–0.6 and Pearson correlations between 0.6 and 0.8. Further using two high-resolution feature importance methods, we demonstrate that atmospheric humidity, groundwater groundwater-based irrigation, and crop cultivation are the most important predictors of seasonal groundwater dynamics at the district level in India. We further demonstrate a shift in the predictors of groundwater depletion over 1998–2014 that is robustly found between the two feature importance methods, namely increasing importance of deep-well irrigation in Central and Eastern India. These areas coincide with districts where groundwater depletion is most severe. Further analysis shows decreases in crop yields per unit of irrigation over those regions, suggesting decreasing marginal returns for largely increasing quantities of groundwater irrigation used. This analysis demonstrates the public policy value of machine learning models for providing high spatiotemporal accuracy in predicting groundwater depletion, while also highlighting how anthropogenic activity impacts groundwater in India, with consequent implications for productivity and well-being.

Groundwater in India is Decreasing Because of Growing Urban Estates, Multiple Cropping Patterns and Excessive Water Use for Irrigation/agriculture

India is seeing a significant reduction in groundwater levels, attributed to changes in agricultural techniques, urbanization, and unsustainable water exploitation. This puts agriculture, the security of the water supply, and the daily lives of nearly 1.5 billion people in danger. The study explores the varied terrain of India, the different types of soil, and how heat waves and rainfall patterns are affected by climate change. The water crises in Chennai and Bengaluru highlight the need for strict water management techniques in the socioeconomic environment. In addition, the health consequences of tainted groundwater, which may contain dangerous substances like arsenic and chromium, demand prompt attention for appropriate disposal and surveillance to protect the public's health and welfare.

Mapping of groundwater availability in dry areas of rural and urban regions in India using IOT assisted deep learning classification model

Groundwater is a crucial resource for fulfilling the water requirements of India's rural and urban areas. The heterogeneous nature of geological, hydrological, and climatic factors results in substantial variability in the accessibility of groundwater across disparate regions. The present investigation centers on the cartography of groundwater accessibility in arid zones of rural and urban Indian areas using a Deep Learning Classification Model (DL-GWCM) supported by the Internet of Things (IoT). The introductory section underscores the importance of groundwater in India, where groundwater sources cater to around 80% of rural and 50% of urban water demands. The text highlights statistical data derived from surveys that indicate a notable decrease in groundwater levels. This underscores the pressing necessity for implementing effective monitoring and management strategies. The DL-GWCM is a proposed solution that aims to enhance the precision and effectiveness of groundwater availability mapping by incorporating IoT technology and Deep Learning Classification. The DL-GWCM comprises multiple constituent elements, such as Groundwater Prediction, Water Quality Index, and Conventional Neural Network- Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (CNN–Bi LSTM) classification. The process of Groundwater Prediction involves the utilization of past data and environmental factors to make precise forecasts of groundwater levels. The Water Quality Index evaluates the quality of subsurface water resources, guaranteeing their secure and enduring utilization. The Deep Learning Classification Model with IoT technology was implemented for groundwater accessibility mapping in Indian arid zones. It integrates Groundwater Prediction, Water Quality Index, and CNN–Bi LSTM classification. The model makes precise forecasts using past data and environmental factors, ensuring secure water quality. Using the CNN–Bi LSTM classification model improves the precision of groundwater availability mapping due to its resilient classification capabilities. These findings suggest that the DL-GWCM outperforms conventional approaches. The mean values of all five metrics for the proposed method are presented as follows: The performance metrics of the model are as follows: Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of 0.77%, Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 2.13%, Relative Absolute Error (RAE) of 8.72%, Root Relative Squared Error (RRSE) of 0.92%, and Correlation Coefficient (CC) of 0.92. The results of the proposed methodology facilitate the discernment of regions with abundant or scarce groundwater accessibility, thereby supporting the sustainable management and planning of groundwater resources.

Arsenic stress management through arsenite and arsenate-tolerant growth-promoting bacteria in rice.

Arsenic (As) contamination is a major problem affecting soil and groundwater in India, harming agricultural crops and human health. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) have emerged as promising agents for reducing As toxicity in plants. This study aimed to isolate and characterize As-tolerant PGPR from rice field soils with varying As levels in five districts of West Bengal, India. A total of 663 bacterial isolates were obtained from the different soil samples, and 10 bacterial strains were selected based on their arsenite (As-III) and arsenate (As-V) tolerant ability and multiple PGP traits, including phosphate solubilization, production of siderophore, indole acetic acid, biofilm formation, alginate, and exopolysaccharide. These isolates were identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis as Staphylococcus sp. (4), Niallia sp. (2), Priestia sp. (1), Bacillus sp. (1), Pseudomonas sp. (1), and Citricoccus sp. (1). Among the selected bacterial strains, Priestia flexa NBRI4As1 and Pseudomonas chengduensis NBRI12As1 demonstrated significant improvement in rice growth by alleviating arsenic stress under greenhouse conditions. Both strains were also able to modulate photosynthetic pigments, soluble sugar content, proline concentration, and defense enzyme activity. Reduction in As-V accumulation inoculated with NBRI4As1 was recorded highest by 53.02% and 31.48%, while As-III by NBRI12As1 38.84% and 35.98% in the roots and shoots of rice plants, respectively. Overall, this study can lead to developing efficient As-tolerant bacterial strains-based bioinoculant application packages for arsenic stress management in rice.

A History of India's Groundwater Crisis

A History of India's Groundwater Crisis

A comprehensive review of arsenic contamination in India with an emphasis on its detection through biosensors and bioremediation from the aqueous system

AbstractIn India, where millions of people use groundwater for drinking, arsenic pollution in groundwater is a major environmental and public health issue. The review begins by analyzing the sources and causes of groundwater arsenic pollution, including natural geological processes and anthropogenic activities like mining and industrial discharge. It emphasizes India's most arsenic‐contaminated regions and the health risks of long‐term exposure. The review's second section focuses on the use of biosensors to find arsenic in groundwater. A potential method is provided by biosensors because of their great sensitivity, selectivity, and quick response. The benefits and drawbacks of several types of biosensors, including optical, electrochemical, and microbiological biosensors, are discussed. The utilization of nanomaterials, biomolecular recognition components, and miniature devices are only a few of the most recent developments in biosensor technology for arsenic detection that are studied. The review's last section discusses methods for bio‐remediating aqueous systems that have been contaminated with arsenic. Various bioremediation techniques are covered in detail, including microbial degradation, phytoremediation, and biosorption. The promise for removing arsenic using native microbes and plant species is highlighted, along with the difficulties of widespread application and long‐term sustainability. Overall, focusing on the detection of arsenic using biosensors and investigating bioremediation techniques, this review offers a thorough grasp of the arsenic poisoning in groundwater in India. In order to combat arsenic contamination and protect the health and wellbeing of the impacted populations in India, it emphasizes the need for interdisciplinary research and collaboration among scientists, engineers, policymakers, and local communities.

Invisible dangers in India's groundwater

Shifting to groundwater brought sufficient water quantity to India. Yet water quality has been an afterthought and we see fluoride, arsenic and iron and their devastating health impacts. Through awareness and education, villages can find safe water.

Over Dependency on Groundwater in India: Issues and Insights

The present analysis shows that there is no compatibility between annual rainfall, annual recharge, annual draft, and the number of OCS blocks indicating serious discrepancies in the available information. Apart from this, different groundwater assessments from 2004 show no significant increase in annual groundwater draft, according to a report from the United Nation, groundwater abstraction continued to rise sharply in India. It is also observed that though, there is no significant change in the long-period average annual rainfall of the country, in general, the states in the northwest and central India, like Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh are facing a remarkable downward trend in seasonal (monsoonal) and annual rainfalls both. The states of the country’s western region, like Rajasthan and Gujrat, are witnessing an upward trend in both seasonal (monsoonal) and annual rainfalls. States of southern India are not much affected. Due to declining rainfall in some of the major food grain-producing states, the balance of water distribution in the country is shifting and it may become more prominent in the years to come. India is already the largest abstractor of groundwater in the world and in the above scenario, there will be tremendous pressure on groundwater in the future. This calls for out-of-the-box solutions for groundwater restoration in India. The suggested actions which may counter the looming water crisis in the country, particularly in north-western and central Indian states, include increasing forest cover up to 20% in the next 25 years in poorly forested states, limiting area under water-guzzling greenhouse producing gas crops, starting land subsidence survey in cities, limiting groundwater abstraction and injecting water into aquifers, launching group schemes of drip and sprinkler irrigation on a large scale using existing tube-wells/wells, searching the alternative source of water by developing integrated facilities to retrieve, treat, store, and transport wastewater, transferring groundwater from groundwater surplus areas to scarce areas, enacting comprehensive central law on groundwater, improving water and agriculture resource efficiency through the Internet of Things, cloud and sensor-based network, mapping and time-bound renovation of large traditional water bodies (>1 hectare), revisiting groundwater assessment methodology and norms, quantifying static groundwater resource, developing heat tolerant and less water consuming crops and changing food habits.

Analyzing the Relationship of Fluoride Contamination with Groundwater Temperatures in India

In this paper an attempt has been made to address fluoride contamination in groundwater of India from 2000-2020, along with its relationship with depth to water level and hots springs. Fluoride pollution has been widespread throughout India for decades. Because groundwater is India's primary supply of drinking water, fluoride pollution is a concern. The permissible limit of fluoride concentration by WHO is 0.6-1.5 mg/l while Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) prescribes rather less vibrant range of fluoride 1-1.5 mg/l. Present study is review of fluoride concentration change in groundwater in past two decades of Indian states as well as validating the relation of fluoride concentrations with Depth to water level. With increasing depth to water level, the fluoride concentration in groundwater increases in 80% of the cases reviewed. Concentration of fluoride in Guwahati which is near the Brahmaputra River is higher (0.18 – 6.88 mg/l) than Nalbari (0.02 – 1.56 mg/l) which is away from Brahmaputra. There has been no significant change in the fluoride concentration in cases of Yavatamal & Guntur district during past two decades. In Nagaur district of Rajasthan fluoride concentration decreased from 8.5-28 mg/l in (2010) to 0.5-8.5 mg/l in (2013). In Unnao district fluoride concentration has increased from 1.45-3.75 mg/l in (2002) to 0.8-13.9 mg/l (2010). In case of Bihar, the areas of hard rock formations, the fluoride concentration were found to be higher while in the alluvial formations there were lesser cases of fluoride exceeding the required limit which is 1.5 mg/l. In Vellore district of Tamil Nadu fluoride concentration was found to be increasing within a period of 1 year from 0.2 – 3 mg/l in (2017) to 2.15 – 4.91 mg/l in (2018).

Assessment of U and As in groundwater of India: A meta-analysis

More than 2.5 billion people depend upon groundwater worldwide for drinking, and giving quality water has become one of the great apprehensions of human culture. The contamination of Uranium (U) and Arsenic (As) in the groundwater of India is gaining global attention. The current review provides state-of-the-art groundwater contamination with U and As in different zones of India based on geology and soil texture. The average concentration of U in different zones of India was in the order: West Zone (41.07 μg/L) > North Zone (37.7 μg/L) > South Zone (13.5 μg/L)> Central Zone (7.4 μg/L) > East Zone (5.7 μg/L) >Southeast Zone (2.4 μg/L). The average concentration of As in groundwater of India is in the order: South Zone (369.7 μg/L)>Central Zone (260.4 μg/L)>North Zone (67.7 μg/L)>East Zone (60.3 μg/L)>North-east zone (9.78 μg/L)>West zone (4.14 μg/L). The highest concentration of U and As were found in quaternary sediments, but U in clay skeletal and As in loamy skeletal. Results of health risk assessment showed that the average health quotient of U in groundwater for children and adults was less than unity. In contrast, it was greater than unity for As posing a harmful impact on human health. This review provides the baseline data regarding the U and As contamination status in groundwater of India, and appropriate, effective control measures need to be taken to control this problem.

Leveraging machine learning methods to quantify 50 years of dwindling groundwater in India

Global compilations and regional studies, indicative of the unsustainable extraction and subsequent unremittingly depleting groundwater (GW) in India, either provide bulk estimates or are confined to the river basins and therefore conceal inferences from a nationwide policymaking perspective. Here, we provide the state-wise past (2000−2020) and future (2030–2050) assessment of dwindling groundwater in India utilizing in-situ groundwater levels (GWL) from 54,112 wells, remote sensing products, and hydrological simulations. By employing three machine learning methods, we show a decline in GWL of over 80% in North India with a notable shift towards the eastern state of Uttar Pradesh and a cumulative groundwater loss (169.96 ± 19.67 km3) equivalent to the water storage capacity of the world's biggest dam (Kariba Dam, Zimbabwe). Its likely contribution to sea-level rise (0.47 ± 0.06 mm) is about 64% of that from annual global glacier melt. Our results typically contrast the GW recovery paradox in South India (e.g., a declining trend of −84.48 ± 38.81 mm/a (p < 0.05) in Andhra Pradesh during 2000–2020), reveal high seasonal variability (e.g., up to ~6 m in Maharashtra), and illustrate the skewed effect of survivor bias in the traditional assessments. We infer the significant impact of underlying hydrogeology and the implementation of water-related policies and projects on the GWL dynamic and variability in the region. Projected GWL reveals a likely water scarcity situation for about 2.8 million km2 area and one billion residents of the country up to 2050. Our observation-based analysis offers insights into the state-level monthly GW dynamics, which is critical for efficient interstate resource allocation, development plans, and policy interventions with broad methodological implications for the water-scarce countries.

Investigation of Heavy Metals Including Arsenic (As) Concentration in Underground Water of Agra City using Arsenic Hydride System by Atomic Absorption Spectrometer and also Application of Geo Spatial Technology

Water Plays a significant role in our life. It serves the purpose of various Human activities such as irrigation, electricity, generation, industrial production etc. Water requirement in Uttar Pradesh is continually on the rise. In India ground water is being used as raw or untreated water for 85% of the public Supply of water varies widely from region to region and country to country. The prime requirement for sustainable development of a region is its water quality especially underground water. To check groundwater and sort out the contaminated region is economically very significant for the development of the area...Currently the potable water woes are global problem. This paper focuses on the ground water contamination of Agra city. It was selected for its importance as a popular tourist destination worldwide. The large number of tourists coming here use its water, therefore it is imperative that its water quality be monitored regularly. The present study is of mid-monsoon season 2018. For these 15 samples were collected using handheld GPS from randomly selected stations from different wards having easy access for regular sampling. The drinking water in Agra city is assessed for the following 8 parameters namely, pH, conductance, total dissolved solids (TDS) and heavy metals like Cu, Cr, Zn, Pb and As. and it is found that the concentration of various parameters is not within the permissible limit of water quality prescribed by WHO and CPCB. A GIS database of the measured spatial and water quality data is developed using QGIS3.2 and ground water quality maps are also prepared which will be helpful in monitoring the ground water quality of the status of the study area.