Ground Scratching Research Articles

Status, distribution, and threats of Himalayan Monal (Lophophorus impejanus) in Sagarmatha National Park

This study was conducted to assess the population status, distribution, and threats of Himalayan Monal (Lophophorus impejanus) in Sagarmatha National Park from February to June 2022. The study area was divided into five blocks- Namche, Furte, Syangboche, Mislung, and Kyangjuma. Population was estimated by using the line transect method. Bird survey was conducted two times in each transect during the study period. Similarly, bird distribution was determined by direct evidences such as bird sightings, ground scratching marks of the birds, their feathers and fecal matter, and indirect evidences such as information from the locals and park staff. The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was used in the feature digitization of slope, aspect, and elevation to show the bird distribution. A semi-structured questionnaire survey was conducted to assess the threats. Altogether, 67 Himalayan Monal birds consisting of 48 male and 19 female individuals were recorded. The pheasants were distributed in all the blocks, preferably in the pure pine forests with different aspects and slopes within 3250 m and 4021 m altitude above the mean sea level. The overall population density was found to be 4.69 birds/km2. The highest density (7.26 birds/km2 ) was recorded in the Namche Block, followed by the Furte Block (7.05 birds/km2 ). Habitat degradation, free-ranging dogs, and human disturbance were the major threats to Himalayan Monal.

A buffet of litters – Broiler chickens behave differently according to litter type and freshness

Poultry are usually provided with a single litter type that may not satisfy all litter-directed behavioural functions and may lose functional value over time due to soiling and degradation. We investigated this hypothesis in two commercial broiler flocks reared to 34 days of age on peat litter. We provided “litter buffets” comprising seven adjacent 1-m2 litter trays, each containing a different litter type (peat, peat mixed with sawdust, wood shavings, finely-chopped bark, oat straw pellets, coarsely-crushed rape straw, and finely-ground rape straw), in two different locations of the house. We observed the number of chickens performing different behaviours, and total number present, in each litter tray once weekly for four weeks, before and after adding 5 L of fresh material. The litter types varied in attractiveness for ground scratching (an exploratory component of foraging behaviour; P < 0.001), with the most ground scratching occurring in peat, mixed peat, wood shavings, and fine straw (in order of preference). More ground scratching also occurred in fresh than used litter (P < 0.001). Dustbathing varied according to the interaction between litter type and freshness (P = 0.029), with mixed peat, peat, fine straw, and wood shavings being preferred when fresh, and fine straw best retaining dustbathing attractiveness when used. Lying resting varied between litter types (P < 0.001), being highest in wood shavings, mixed peat, and fine straw regardless of freshness and, because lying resting was the most common activity, the total chickens present followed the same pattern. The proportion of small particles (≤1.0 mm diameter) increased to varying extents between litter types as litter degraded from fresh to used. Ground scratching was not associated with particle size distribution. However, chickens preferred to dustbathe in fresh litter with more small particles (P < 0.001), and in used litter with fewer large particles (>3.6 mm; P = 0.023). They also tended to avoid lying resting in fresh litter with a high proportion of large particles (P < 0.001). Consistent with our hypothesis, different litter materials stimulated different behavioural responses and top dressing with fresh litter increased litter attractiveness for ground scratching and dustbathing. We conclude that broiler welfare can be improved by providing a choice of litter materials to address different motivational priorities. Although chickens were attracted to peat and mixed peat for ground scratching and dustbathing, to avoid loss of peatlands (an environmental sustainability concern), wood shavings can be the main litter type, supplemented by patches of fine rape straw, with periodic top dressing of both.

Rewarding memories? Behaviour of broiler chickens towards peat in flocks with and without previous exposure to peat

Under commercial conditions, environmental provisions assumed to have an enriching effect on broiler chicken welfare may be offered infrequently and at limited locations, raising questions about their enrichment value. We hypothesized that, if broilers given limited access to peat remembered peat as rewarding, they would subsequently be quicker to exploit fresh peat compared to broilers never previously exposed to peat. We observed 9 control flocks without previous peat exposure and 18 flocks given peat from 1 week of age with variable regularity and in limited locations. During flock visits at approximately 4 weeks of age, we placed 10 L of fresh peat in one location (peat patch) and pretended to do so in another location (control patch, wood shavings litter only). From 20-min video recordings of the peat and control patches, we determined the mean latency for the first five birds to perform standing, lying, ground pecking, ground scratching and vertical wing shaking in each patch. We also recorded the total number of birds present, and proportion lying, per patch based on instantaneous scan sampling at 1-min intervals. We used linear mixed models to assess effects of previous flock exposure to peat, patch type and their interaction, with farm as a random factor. Birds were quicker to ground peck, and slower to stand and lie, in peat than control patches, and the proportion lying was lower (i.e. birds were more active) in peat patches. Birds in peat-exposed flocks were quicker to ground peck than birds without prior peat experience. They also had shorter latencies to stand on peat, and to commence ground scratching and vertical wing shaking in peat, compared to birds in peat-unexposed flocks whereas previous peat exposure did not affect these behaviours in the control patch. In peat-unexposed flocks, birds were slower to stand, in the peat patch than the control patch, and fewer birds were present in the peat patch than the control patch throughout the 20-min observation period. Thus, birds in the peat-exposed flocks were quicker to exploit fresh peat by performing behavioural elements of foraging and dustbathing whereas birds in peat-unexposed flocks showed more caution towards the peat. We conclude that, even though provisioning of peat was relatively sparse and ephemeral, it was sufficient to generate long-term positive memories of the resource and to activate the performance of natural behaviours, supporting its value as an enrichment for broilers under commercial conditions.

The influence of spaying and its timing relative to the onset of puberty on urinary and general behaviour in Labrador Retrievers.

Benefits and risks of spaying on the behaviour of female dogs are controversially discussed. Increased aggressiveness and male urinary behaviour were postulated to be the consequence of masculinization after spaying in some female dogs. To investigate if spaying or its timing relative to the onset of puberty may have a masculinization effect, urinary behaviour, that is, frequency of urination, urinary posture and ground scratching after urination were recorded in 58 female Labrador Retrievers during 15min of a daily walk with their owners. General behaviour of the dogs during the walks was assessed using an owner questionnaire. Data were analysed for age, reproductive status, lifetime of ovary exposure and/or time interval since spaying. Urinary behaviour of intact females (n=12) and dogs spayed before (n=17) or after (n=29) puberty was similar and not influenced by age, lifetime of ovary exposure and/or time interval since spaying. Owners of spayed dogs described more frequent or more intense fear reaction in their animals in response to loud noises, unfamiliar objects approaching on or near the sidewalk, or if they were approached by unknown dogs barking, growling or jumping. In conclusion, we found no evidence of a masculinization effect after spaying on urinary behaviour in female Labrador Retrievers. In contrast to popular belief, gonadectomy did not inevitably result in a behaviourally more stable dog. Extrapolation of our findings from female Labrador Retrievers to other breeds should be performed with caution, as the effect of spaying on behaviour may differ among dog breeds.

Effects of environmental enrichment on activity and lameness in commercial broiler production

ABSTRACTThe aim of this pilot study was to investigate the effects of commercially applied environmental enrichments on behavior and lameness in broilers. Two consecutive flocks of broilers were observed at 16 days and 30 days of age to investigate differences between enriched (peat, bales of lucerne hay, and elevated platforms) and control birds with regards to behavioral activities and lameness. More running (p < .001), worm running (p = .006), play fighting (p = .015), dust bathing (p = .009), and ground pecking while standing (p < .001) were observed at 16 days than at 30 days. Across both ages, enriched birds showed more wing flapping (p = .016), wing stretching (p = .002), body shaking (p = .002), ground scratching (p < .001), and ground pecking while standing (p < .001) and lying (p = .003) compared with control birds. Even when no enrichments were close, enriched birds showed more body shaking (p = .008) and ground pecking while standing (p < 0.001) and lying (p = .010) than birds in comparable locations in control pens. There was a tendency for a lower gait score (i.e., reduced lameness) with the enriched treatment (p = .077). In conclusion, enriched birds showed higher levels of several activities compared with control birds, and demonstrated higher levels in areas where no enrichments were present.

Scent marking in shelter dogs: Effects of sex and age

Development of scent-marking behavior from the neonatal period to early adulthood has been well studied in dogs, but there is a distinct lack of information for older dogs. I studied scent-marking behavior during single walks of 500 male and female dogs at two shelters (Tompkins County SPCA and Cortland Community SPCA). My sample included juveniles, adults, and seniors. I found a significant effect of age on frequency of urination (P<0.0001 at both shelters): seniors urinated more frequently than adults (contrast significant at the Cortland shelter; P<0.07 at the Tompkins shelter), which urinated more frequently than juveniles. Age also influenced likelihood of directing urinations at targets in the environment (P<0.0001 at both shelters): seniors directed more of their urinations than did adults (significant at Cortland shelter only), which directed more of their urinations than did juveniles. I found that males urinated more frequently than females (P<0.0001 at both shelters) and directed more of their urinations (P<0.0001 at both shelters). Significant age and sex differences did not characterize defecation at either shelter. Ground scratching, whether after urination or defecation, was rarely performed by juveniles (% that ground scratched at least once: Tompkins shelter, <14%; Cortland shelter, 0%), so I excluded juveniles from analyses of this behavior. Ground scratching after urination was not associated with sex or age (adults versus seniors) at either shelter, but was positively associated with number of directed urinations (Tompkins shelter, P<0.0001; Cortland shelter, P<0.002). Ground scratching after defecation was not associated with sex at either shelter, but was associated with age at the Tompkins shelter (P<0.03; % that ground scratched after at least one defecation: 28% of adults; 42% of seniors); a similar pattern occurred at the Cortland shelter (29% of adults; 50% of seniors), but the association failed to reach statistical significance perhaps due to smaller sample sizes. Finally, at the Tompkins shelter, ground scratching after defecation was positively associated with number of urinations followed by ground scratching (P<0.0001); here, again, a similar pattern occurred at the Cortland shelter but the association failed to reach statistical significance. These data reveal new relationships between scent-marking behaviors; indicate that some marking behaviors continue to change even after a dog has reached adulthood; and highlight the differential effects of sex and age on urination, defecation, and ground scratching.

Assessment of welfare and egg production of laying hens moravia ssl in small-scale breeding

The purpose of this study was to investigate the welfare of laying hens Moravia SSL housed in small-scale hen house with free range, behavior, egg production and selected physical indicators of eggs and chemical indicators of egg mass. The laying hens were kept in a hen house on deep litter. Breeding facility of hen house was within the meaning of recommendation for applying the principles of welfare, i.e. the space and breeding facility within the meaning of enriched breeding environment. Stocking density of the laying hens corresponded with recommendations for unrestricted movement and implementing natural activities. The hen house was equipped with the perch, nest, feeder and drinker. The commercial feed mixture was used for feeding, which is intended for laying hens. The kitchen remains were added to feed mixture, as are wet bread, the non-edible remains of foodstuffs. A feed mixture was served to laying hens 825 g per day. The laying hens had free access to drinking water, grazing, ground pecking, ground scratching and dust-bathing and in the free range. We focused investigation of on the egg laying intensity, selected parameters of physical egg quality and chemical egg contents. Time to relax of laying hens was adjusted according to the summer and winter breeding seasons. The main activities of free-range hens are grazing, ground pecking, ground scratching and dust-bathing. The main activities of free-range hens are grazing, ground pecking, ground scratching and dust-bathing. These activities were investigated in laying hens too in dependent of year period, more in the summer. Housing of the hens was equipped with the perch. The laying hens regularly used a perch. A beginning of occupation the perch was at the time of time growing dark, at the end of the light day. A nesting material was selected regular, monthly exchange. It was meadow hay of excellent quality for the collection of high quality and safe eggs from nests in the hen house. The laying hens had unlimited access to feed and water. The commercial feed mixture was available ad libitum and fresh kitchen remnants were added in a small amount, provided that they fed in the short term, so that not subject to harmful degradation process. The management of our experiment was scheduled at age of laying hens 30 to 90 weeks. The egg laying intensity was observed 50% in a moment of the experimental 1st week (age of laying hens 30 weeks). High egg laying intensity of laying hens was at their age between 39 to 63 weeks. At the end of the experiment, at age of laying hens 90 weeks was decreased egg laying intensity at 26.19%, which represents almost half of egg laying intensity recorded at the beginning of the experiment. An indicator of egg production in the our experiment was studied under defined conditions for small-scale breeding, i.e. in alternative production system with free range, under defined conditions of nutrition and timing of investigation more than one year, from the end of October to the end of December of the following year. The results of our experiment can be related to the season, months of the year. The laying hens laid the eggs by individual weeks 33-90 weeks of age about average weight from 57.5 to 75.0 g. The fat content of an egg mass was 11.3 g.100-1 and protein 12.39.g.100-1. The table eggs from conditions of small-scale breeding are an important source of foodstuffs for the population, especially in rural areas. It must be given to this source of table eggs for human nutrition the highest quality and health safety too.

Application of GIS technology in the analysis of wolf Canis lupus L. behaviour and migration routes in the landscape

The paper presents the results of tracking a pack of wolves carried out between January and February 2013 in the Forest Division of Solec Kujawski in Bydgoszcz Forest, which surrounds three cities – Bydgoszcz, Toruń and Solec Kujawski, and locally encroaches on their administrative areas. The behaviour of wolves and their migration routes were determined based on tracks left on snow. The location of tracks was recorded with a GPS receiver. Visualization and data analysis were performed with the software QuantumGIS. The pack consists of seven wolves and one, most likely rejected male following the close group. A total of 10.22 km of trails, including characteristic ground scratching, faeces and a prey killed by the wolf pack, were found on the snow over an area of ca. 100 km2. Forest roads are preferred landscape elements of the monitored pack, used for movement. Data analysis with GIS tools helps to determine the migration routes and behaviour of the wolf pack living in the study area.

Intensity of Territorial Marking Predicts Wolf Reproduction: Implications for Wolf Monitoring

BackgroundThe implementation of intensive and complex approaches to monitor large carnivores is resource demanding, restricted to endangered species, small populations, or small distribution ranges. Wolf monitoring over large spatial scales is difficult, but the management of such contentious species requires regular estimations of abundance to guide decision-makers. The integration of wolf marking behaviour with simple sign counts may offer a cost-effective alternative to monitor the status of wolf populations over large spatial scales.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe used a multi-sampling approach, based on the collection of visual and scent wolf marks (faeces and ground scratching) and the assessment of wolf reproduction using howling and observation points, to test whether the intensity of marking behaviour around the pup-rearing period (summer-autumn) could reflect wolf reproduction. Between 1994 and 2007 we collected 1,964 wolf marks in a total of 1,877 km surveyed and we searched for the pups' presence (1,497 howling and 307 observations points) in 42 sampling sites with a regular presence of wolves (120 sampling sites/year). The number of wolf marks was ca. 3 times higher in sites with a confirmed presence of pups (20.3 vs. 7.2 marks). We found a significant relationship between the number of wolf marks (mean and maximum relative abundance index) and the probability of wolf reproduction.Conclusions/SignificanceThis research establishes a real-time relationship between the intensity of wolf marking behaviour and wolf reproduction. We suggest a conservative cutting point of 0.60 for the probability of wolf reproduction to monitor wolves on a regional scale combined with the use of the mean relative abundance index of wolf marks in a given area. We show how the integration of wolf behaviour with simple sampling procedures permit rapid, real-time, and cost-effective assessments of the breeding status of wolf packs with substantial implications to monitor wolves at large spatial scales.

Animal Welfare and Food Safety Aspects of Confining Broiler Chickens to Cages.

Simple SummaryIn commercial chicken meat production, broiler chickens are usually kept on the floor in ware-house like buildings, but the use of cages is becoming more common. Confining chickens to cages is a welfare problem, as has been thoroughly demonstrated for laying hens used for egg production. Caged broiler chickens may suffer from poor bone strength due to lack of exercise, feather loss, and restriction of natural behavior. There are also potential food safety concerns associated with the use of cages. While cages may provide an economic advantage in some geographical regions of the world, the severe, inherent disadvantages should also be considered before cages are more widely adopted in the global broiler chicken industry.In most areas of the world, broiler chickens are raised in floor systems, but cage confinement is becoming more common. The welfare of broiler chickens in cages is affected by movement restriction, poor bone strength due to lack of exercise, and prevention of key behavioral patterns such as dustbathing and ground scratching. Cages for broiler chickens also have a long history of causing skin and leg conditions that could further compromise welfare, but a lack of controlled studies makes it difficult to draw conclusions about newer cage designs. Cage environments are usually stocked at a higher density than open floor systems, and the limited studies available suggest that caging may lead to increased levels of fear and stress in the birds. Further, birds reared on the floor appear less likely to harbor and shed Salmonella, as litter may serve as a seeding agent for competitive exclusion by other microorganisms. Cages for laying hens used in egg production have met with substantial opposition due to welfare concerns and caging broiler chickens will likely be subject to the same kinds of social disapproval.

Scent‐Marking Behaviour in a Pack of Free‐Ranging Domestic Dogs

AbstractMost mammals scent‐mark, and a variety of hypotheses have been put forward to explain this behaviour. Most of our knowledge about scent marking in domestic dogs comes from studies carried out on laboratory or companion dogs, while few studies have been carried out on free‐ranging dogs. Here, we explored the functional significance of different scent‐marking behavioural patterns in a pack of free‐ranging domestic dogs by testing two non‐exclusive hypotheses: the indirect territorial defence and the dominance/threat hypotheses. Through direct observation, we recorded the locations of dog scent marks (urination, defecation and ground scratching) and information regarding the identity and posture of the marking animal. We found evidence that markings are used by dogs to form a ‘property line’ and to threaten rivals during agonistic conflicts. Both males and females utilized scent marking to assert dominance and probably to relocate food or maintain possession over it. Raised‐leg urination and ground scratching probably play a role in olfactory and visual communication in both males and females. Urinations released by females, especially through flexed‐leg posture, may also convey information about their reproductive state. Finally, our observations suggest that defecation does not play an essential role in olfactory communication among free‐ranging dogs and that standing and squat postures are associated with normal excretion. Our results suggest that many of the proposed functions of marking behaviours are not mutually exclusive, and all should be explored through detailed field and laboratory studies.

Wolf Pack Territory Marking in the Bialowieza Primeval Forest (Poland)

Summary We analysed data on territory marking with urine, scats, and ground scratching by wolves (Canis lupus) belonging to four packs in the BiaA owie C Primeval Forest, Poland. The aims were to determine: (1) seasonal variation in the marking rates, (2) signie cance of various kinds of marking in territory demarcation, and (3) relationship between spatial distribution of wolves’ marking and their use of territory. Continuous radio-tracking and subsequent snow tracking of the collared wolves were the main methods. Deposition rates of scats showed little variation in time and space, whereas rates of urine marking and ground scratching showed large seasonal and spatial variation. Wolf marking rates with urine and ground scratching were highest during the cold season (October-March) and peaked during the mating season, in January and February. Marking intensity did not grow with the number of wolves in a pack, and per capita rates of marking were highest in wolves travelling singly or in pairs. Mean marking rates per km of wolf trail were low in the core areas of territories, and increased

Ground scratching and preferred leg use in domestic chicks: Changes in motor control in the first two weeks post-hatching

Lateralisation of a variety of visual functions: food discrimination, fear response, copulation, and performance of topographical and other tasks, such as olfactory and auditory functions, have been described in the domestic chick, Gallus gallus domesticus. A bias to left hemisphere control on day 8 and to the right on day 11 has also been demonstrated in the domestic chick. In this study we show that motor control as to foot preference in initiating a scratching bout and a tape-removing task is lateralised in both adults and chicks. There was a preference for the right leg to initiate a bout of ground scratching in both male and female adult birds. Second, foot preference is also affected by the changes in shifts of bias on day 8 and day 11. The right leg preference in initiating a ground scratching bout observed on day 5 is reversed to a left leg preference on day 8. This then reverts to the right leg preference after day 11. Hence it is postulated that the hemisphere that is not activated due to the bias of age controls the first leg to be used in initiating routine movements such as ground scratching. For the tape-removing task the right leg was used to remove a tape adhered to the beak of the chick for the trained group on day 8; but there was no preference in the naïve group. Similarly, on day 11 a left foot bias was observed for the trained group and right foot bias for the naïve group. To remove a tape the activated hemisphere on days of bias is used; whereas in a novel situation the foot use is reversed. Thus, footedness is affected by age, type of task, and changing hemispheric dominance.

Footedness in Binocular and Monocular Chicks

The first foot used during bouts of ground scratching in 16-day-old chicks searching for food in the floor of an arena covered with sawdust was recorded in animals with normal binocular vision and in animals with an eye temporarily occluded by an eye-patch. Binocular chicks showed a significant right foot bias, whereas monocular chicks tended to use the foot contralateral to the eye in use. Data for monocular chicks thus suggest that the activated hemisphere (contralateral to the eye in use) is the one that takes control of posture, leaving to the other hemisphere reflex-like responses associated with ground scratching or body wiping. It is argued that footedness in chicks might have arisen from the limb that is used to maintain postural and positional control, rather than from the limb that is used during motor activities.

Scent-marking and territorial behaviour of Ethiopian wolves Canis simensis

Scent-marking behaviour and inter-pack aggression were studied in wild Ethiopian wolf, Canis simensis, packs. Raised-leg urinations, followed by ground scratching, were the most frequently deposited scent-mark. Scent-marking rates were highest along or near territory boundaries, where distances between scent-marking sites were reduced and the proportion of multiple marks was increased, relative to other areas. Marking rates increased with wolf numbers during patrols but not during other activities. Although all adult members of a pack contributed to scent-marking, the dominant pair marked most frequently. Subadult males scent-marked occasionally but subadult females never did. Wolves vigorously over-marked neighbours' scent-marks. Most direct encounters between neighbouring wolves at territory borders were aggressive and involved repeated chases, and the larger group was most likely to win. Resident wolves were more tolerant of opposite-sex than same-sex neighbours. Resident wolves therefore signalled pack composition and status at home range borders by olfactory and auditory cues and by aggressive contests. Such signalling may reduce the occurrence of potentially costly inter-pack aggressive encounters at territory borders and provide information on reproductive status.

Scent‐marking and territorial behaviour of Ethiopian wolves Canis simensis

AbstractScent‐marking behaviour and inter‐pack aggression were studied in wild Ethiopian wolf, Canis simensis, packs. Raised‐leg urinations, followed by ground scratching, were the most frequently deposited scent‐mark. Scent‐marking rates were highest along or near territory boundaries, where distances between scent‐marking sites were reduced and the proportion of multiple marks was increased, relative to other areas. Marking rates increased with wolf numbers during patrols but not during other activities. Although all adult members of a pack contributed to scent‐marking, the dominant pair marked most frequently. Subadult males scent‐marked occasionally but subadult females never did. Wolves vigorously over‐marked neighbours' scent‐marks. Most direct encounters between neighbouring wolves at territory borders were aggressive and involved repeated chases, and the larger group was most likely to win. Resident wolves were more tolerant of opposite‐sex than same‐sex neighbours. Resident wolves therefore signalled pack composition and status at home range borders by olfactory and auditory cues and by aggressive contests. Such signalling may reduce the occurrence of potentially costly inter‐pack aggressive encounters at territory borders and provide information on reproductive status.

Effects of pecking incentives during rearing on feather pecking of laying hens.

1. Additional straw or grain was supplied to hens during rearing in floor pens with litter floors. During lay, hens were housed in pens with partly-littered partly-slatted floors. The effects on foraging behaviour and feather pecking were studied and feather damage was scored at 17, 30 and 42 weeks of age. 2. Supply of grain in the litter during rearing caused an increase in ground scratching. Ground pecking also tended to increase. Supply of straw had no significant effect on the observed behaviours. 3. Feather damage in the laying period was significantly reduced by providing grain during rearing. A similar tendency was found for groups that received straw during rearing. On the basis of the behavioural observations it was concluded that this better plumage cover was caused by less feather pecking. 4. The frequency of pecking at food was decreased during rearing by the supply of grain. This could not be explained solely on the basis of a lower food intake. Apparently the efficiency of pecking at food had changed as well. Behavioural data from the laying period suggest that this change was of a more permanent character. 5. The incentive value of the ground and the substrate covering it might be increased by the supply of grain during the rearing period. This causes foraging-related behaviours like scratching and pecking to be directed to the ground. The hens' perception of incentive stimuli for pecking is apparently influenced by experience during rearing. 6. To prevent birds redirecting their ground pecks to the feathers of other birds, not only the peckability/scratchability of the ground seems to be important but also other aspects like nutritive value or taste.

Time budgets in Red Junglefowl as a baseline for the assessment of welfare in domestic fowl

A study of the way in which semi-wild junglefowl allocate their time between different activities showed that in 60% of all minutes during the active part of the day, hens were seen to be ground pecking and in 34%, ground scratching. The fact that such a high proportion of time was spent in foraging activities is discussed in relation to the welfare of domestic fowl unable to perform such activities.

Behaviour of young domestic fowl directed towards different substrates

Abstract 1. Eight groups of 6 female ISA Brown chickens of 43 d of age, housed in pens on wood shavings, were used. Each group was given access for 30 min daily for 8 d to 4 trays, each containing a single substrate: peat, sand, sawdust and wood shavings. The behaviour directed towards these substrates was observed and recorded. 2. Although there was variation between pens of birds, peat and wood shavings were used most for ground scratching, ground pecking and resting. 3. Significantly more bouts of dustbathing took place in the peat than in the other substrates (P<0.001). The bouts were also significantly longer in duration in peat (P<0.001). 4. After short dustbathing bouts in other substrates, birds switched to using peat on 12 occasions, compared with 6 occasions when they switched away from peat. 5. Differences in the use of different substrates may explain the variation in the findings of previous studies on dustbathing. It is suggested that workers should be more specific in their descriptions of ...

Effects of floor type during rearing and of beak trimming on ground pecking and feather pecking in laying hens

Forty groups of 12 1-day-old chicks of a brown egg-laying strain were housed on either litter ( n = 20 groups) or wire floors ( n = 20 groups). Ten groups of birds on wire floors and 10 groups on litter floors were beak trimmed at 45 days of age. At 18 weeks of age, each group was moved to one of 40 identical pens with a partly litter, partly slatted floor. Behavioural observations took place at 7, 10, 14, 17, 18, 23, 30, 36 and 42 weeks of age. Feather damage was scored at 17, 30 and 42 weeks of age. During the rearing period, beak-trimmed birds showed a lower frequency of ground pecking. Ground pecking as well as ground scratching was highest in non-beak-trimmed groups on litter. Both beak trimming and litter floors reduced the average level of feather pecking and pecking at objects during rearing. In the laying period, no differences in the frequency of ground pecking were detected between treatments. Birds reared on wire showed a higher frequency of feather pecking. Feather damage was significantly higher in non-beak-trimmed groups. It was concluded that experiences during rearing influence pecking preferences during the laying period. Moreover, it was concluded that beak trimming does not change pecking preferences nor does it decrease the frequency of feather pecking.