Smutsia Temminckii Research Articles

Assessing Species Richness with Camera Trap Surveys During Five Years of Large-Scale Mining Disruptions

In the Northern Cape Province of South Africa, an investigation was launched into the impact of large-scale open-pit mining on wildlife ecology and populations, more specifically on the animal species richness and detection rates across different vegetation types. Using camera traps, we monitored a 43,000-hectare area, which included active mining areas and adjacent lands, over a period of five years (2020–2024). Data on 44 animal species ranging from small mammals to large megaherbivores were collected, with a large variation in species richness across the study site being observed. The detection of species that are of conservation concern, such as the vulnerable Temminck’s ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) and endangered mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula), highlighted additional potential risks that mining activities pose to biodiversity in the area, emphasizing the importance of monitoring biodiversity in areas that are impacted by large-scale anthropogenic and mining activities. Furthermore, the results suggest that some areas may require a more targeted approach to conservation in order to mitigate the disruptive effect of mining. Benchmarking the species present and proving the presence of endangered and vulnerable species prove the successful first steps into understanding habitat disruption caused by mining activities and will guide future conservation and management efforts.

Illegal harvest, use, and trade in Temminck’s pangolins by communities adjacent to Ruaha National Park, Tanzania

ABSTRACT Pangolins are one of the most trafficked animals in the world, including the Temminck’s pangolin (Smutsia temminckii). Tanzania faces international pangolin trade threats, yet data on Temminck’s pangolins remains scarce despite conservation calls. We interviewed 22 villages near Ruaha National Park to understand pangolin harvest, use, and trade. Pangolin hunting is mostly opportunistic during daily activities, except for village elders who actively hunt pangolins. Pangolin scales dominate trade, primarily purchased by pastoralists and traditional healers. Scales are mainly used in cultural practices and for traditional medicinal purposes. Finally, we learned that there is decreased pangolin use in markets resulting from improved law enforcement and their growing scarcity. Our results suggest that illegal pangolin harvest, use, and trade threaten their survival; locally relevant conservation efforts, including education and enforcement, are crucial to drive effective conservation action.

Wildlife trade dynamics: exploring bushmeat market with a view toward social and ecological justice in Ibadan Metropolis Nigeria

This study examines the bushmeat trade in Ibadan Metropolis, Nigeria, through the lens of environmental justice, focusing on sustainable livelihoods and wildlife conservation. Environmental justice in this context seeks to ensure fair economic opportunities for bushmeat marketers, predominantly women (93%), while protecting vulnerable wildlife species. The surveyed marketers—90% of whom were married—face social inequalities, with only 50% having secondary education and 10% lacking formal education. Most marketers sell bushmeat to household consumers and travelers, raising concerns about the potential spillover of wildlife products beyond Nigeria’s borders, with implications for conservation and zoonotic disease risks. ANOVA results show that greater experience leads to higher profits from species like grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus; P = 0.005) and nile monitor lizard (Varanus niloticus; P = 0.001). As key species such as West African crocodile (Crocdylus suchus), African leopard (Panthera pardus), and ground pangolin (Manis temminckii) decline in availability in traditional hunting grounds, this study emphasizes the urgent need for conservation policies that promote sustainable trade practices and provide alternative livelihoods. These strategies would advance the science of environmental justice by reducing pressure on wildlife (ecological justice) while ensuring stable incomes for marketers (social justice).

Classification of African ground pangolin behaviour based on accelerometer readouts: validation of bio-logging methods

BackgroundUnderstanding how free-ranging animals behave can help in the design of optimal management strategies to both conserve species and enable individuals to express natural behaviours, maximising welfare. Animal-borne accelerometers passively collect data on body acceleration which can be interpreted to quantify behaviour. Accelerometers are increasingly used in behavioural research, however validation of accelerometer readouts to enable classification of discrete behaviours is required for each species. Pangolins are a heavily trafficked clade of mammals, all of which are considered vulnerable to extinction. They are also under-researched, with little known about their behaviour in the wild. In this study, we present the first validation of behavioural classification based on accelerometer readouts for a pangolin species; the ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii).ResultsWe present a standardised protocol for attaching accelerometers to pangolins to minimise the impact of devices on welfare. We match the readouts from accelerometers to behaviours defined through video observations. Using a random forest classification, we defined five discrete behaviours (walking, digging, feeding, investigating ground, and stationary, accuracy of 85%) and three activity levels (low, medium, and high, accuracy of 94%) from accelerometer readouts. We determine optimal sampling frequency and window length (50 Hz and five seconds for discrete behaviour, 10 Hz and seven seconds for activity level). We then deploy accelerometers and classify the behaviour of three free-ranging pangolins for between two and four days. We find considerable variation in peak daily activity between free-ranging pangolins with different individuals displaying nocturnal and crepuscular behaviour. We also find that pangolins spend the majority of their time (between 62 and 71%) at rest.ConclusionThe methods we present will enable the quantification of ground pangolin behaviour in the wild to improve our understanding of the species’ ecology and help inform conservation efforts. This will also help to improve our fundamental understanding of animal behaviour and ecology.

The gross reproductive morphology of the male Temminck's pangolin Smutsia temminckii (Smuts, 1832)

AbstractThe Temminck's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) is one of eight pangolin species worldwide and the only pangolin present in southern Africa. Historically, pangolins have not been able to reproduce successfully in captivity and this may be in part due to the lack of knowledge and understanding with regards to the pangolin reproductive system (anatomy, physiology, biology) in all eight species. This original study describes the gross anatomy of the male Temminck's pangolin from three adult individuals investigated. The male Temminck's pangolin presented a short, conical penis with ascrotal (internal) testes, similar to many other myrmecophagous mammals such as the aardvark (Orycteropus sp.) and anteaters (suborder: Vermilingua). However, the orientation of the penis of the Temminck's pangolin differed in that it was oriented cranioventrally, in contrast to the caudal orientation of the giant anteater. The testes were found to be bilaterally flattened with an elongate oval shape, similar to the aardvark. The specific characteristics of the reproductive tract of the male Temminck's pangolins are thought to be adaptations to their peculiar lifestyle as the male portrays characteristics that indicate adaptation to a lower basal metabolic rate and body temperature as well as to their defensive mechanism of rolling up into a ball. Our study suggests the male Temminck's pangolin reproductive anatomy is most similar and comparable to the Xenarthrans and the aardvark that display the same fossorial activities as pangolins, and the male morphology is not comparable to the phylogenetically closely‐related Carnivora.

Ecology, status, and distribution of Temminck's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) in Hwange National Park

AbstractTemminck's pangolin, Smutsia temminckii (Smuts, 1832), faces conservation threats of poaching and trafficking in Zimbabwe. Using a mixed‐method approach we assessed the ecology, status, and distribution of Temminck's pangolin in Hwange National Park (HNP) over May–December 2021. Seven pangolins were recorded through direct sightings, although camera traps deployed did not detect pangolins. Biotic and abiotic factors including rainfall, air temperature, waterholes, digital elevation model, anthills, and Miombo vegetation influence pangolin distribution. The low pangolin numbers recorded in the study either indicate its shy nature or simply reflect its low densities in HNP. Short‐term surveys are inconclusive for determining key factors influencing the population, ecology, and distribution of shy species such as Temminck's pangolin. Long‐term future monitoring initiatives integrating ground surveys, citizen science data, and scientific methods like environmental DNA metabarcoding will enhance accurate assessment of pangolin population trends and presence inside and outside of protected areas such as HNP.

Social media as a tool to understand the distribution and ecology of elusive mammals.

Comparatively little is known about the distribution and ecology of Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) and Temminck's Ground Pangolin (Smutsia temminckii). Both are elusive species that are normally nocturnal, solitary, and fossorial. Formally collected records have been used to map the distribution of these species, and social media records provide a tool to gather information on their distribution and ecology. We obtained 680 photographs and videos of aardvarks and 790 of ground pangolins in southern Africa from publicly available posts on Facebook and Instagram (2010-2019). The images provide new insights into the distribution, activity, drinking, and predation-and confirm that aardvarks are more diurnally active when they are in poor body condition. Social media can provide useful supplementary information for understanding of elusive mammals. These "soft" data can be applied to other species.

Validating enzyme immunoassays for non-invasive reproductive hormone monitoring in Temminck's pangolin.

Gonadal hormones play a central role in reproductive function and success. As such, quantifying reproductive hormones non-invasively in threatened, vulnerable and endangered wildlife species offers an ideal tool for assessing general and individual reproductive patterns in situ. Whilst the use of faeces as a hormone matrix is often preferred in these cases, the required enzyme immunoassays (EIAs) for measuring faecal androgen (fAM), oestrogen (fEM) and progestagen metabolite (fPM) concentrations must first be validated if a species gets investigated for the first time to ensure biologically relevant patterns can be observed. In this study we aimed to biologically validate the EIAs for monitoring fAM, fEM and fPM concentrations in Temminck's pangolin, Smutsia temminckii. Hormone metabolite concentrations derived from each EIA tested were compared between different age and sex classes. An epiandrosterone EIA effectively measured androgen levels in males, distinguishing between adult and juvenile individuals, as well as both female age classes. Similarly, the tested oestrogen EIA successfully distinguished between adult and juvenile female fEM concentrations, and both tested progestagen EIAs demonstrated adequate differences between fPM concentrations of adult and juvenile females. The now-validated EIAs offer robust tools for a non-invasive monitoring of reproductive activity in Temminck's pangolin. The development of such techniques will allow researchers to assess reproductive hormone patterns of the species in situ, whilst also paving the way for further studies in this field. Despite the small sample size due to the species' conservation status, the study provides a foundation for future research using a robust, validated, non-invasive monitoring tool. The latter can now be implemented in long-term monitoring with larger sample sizes to yield more comprehensive data, aiding in the conservation of Temminck's pangolin.

Non‐fatal removal of ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii Smuts, 1832) tracking devices by predators

AbstractThe ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii Smuts 1832) is vulnerable to extinction due to poaching and trafficking. Recovery of pangolins from the trade and subsequent rehabilitation and release form a core component of pangolin conservation. Post‐release monitoring of rehabilitated pangolins through the attachment of very high frequency (VHF) transmitters and satellite devices is carried out to determine the efficacy of release protocols. We report on 14 confirmed and 19 potential incidents of device removal by predators during non‐fatal attacks, which occurred over a 6 year period. During this time, 78 devices were deployed 109 times attached to 36 rehabilitated pangolins. These incidents should be considered during the design of future post‐release monitoring protocols.

Fence‐related mortalities of Temminck's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) in South Africa quantified through a citizen science approach

AbstractFence mortalities threaten Temminck's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) in South Africa. Temminck's pangolins are bipedal, which leads to contact between their unprotected abdomens and electrified wires. We report findings of an online survey of landowners, managers and conservationists to investigate associations between mortalities, fence type and fence perimeter‐area ratio, and between mortalities and concern level reported by respondents. Of 14 recorded taxa, pangolins were the second most reported mortalities, with ground‐level electric wired fences having a larger negative impact than other fence types.

Status of terrestrial mammals in the Yangambi Landscape, Democratic Republic of the Congo

AbstractIn this study we provide the first comprehensive camera-trap assessment of terrestrial mammals in the Yangambi landscape, comprising the Yangambi Biosphere Reserve and a logging concession in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The terrestrial mammal community in this area exhibits lower occupancy and species richness compared to other conservation areas in the Congo Basin. The community is dominated by four species: Emin's pouched rat Cricetomys emini (1.3 kg), African brush-tailed porcupine Atherurus africanus (2.8 kg), blue duiker Philantomba monticola (5 kg) and bay duiker Cephalophus dorsalis (12 kg), which are known to be highly resilient. Large ungulates and medium-sized carnivores have particularly low abundances. Our study also confirmed the presence of four species categorized as threatened on the IUCN Red List: the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes, giant ground pangolin Smutsia gigantea, black-bellied pangolin Phataginus tetradactyla and white-bellied pangolin Phataginus tricuspis. Our findings highlight the need to consider wildlife conservation at the landscape level, including the logging concession, where species showed higher occupancy levels compared to the Biosphere Reserve, and highlighting the need for planning infrastructure construction and developing mitigation schemes, reducing forest degradation from logging and developing permanent cash crop agriculture. Landscape-level conservation will only be possible if a collaborative management model steered by local communities is developed with the participation of all constituencies.

Multiple co‐occurring bioeconomic drivers of overexploitation can accelerate rare species extinction risk

AbstractThe unsustainable harvest of species for the global wildlife trade is a major cause of vertebrate extinction. Through the anthropogenic Allee effect (AAE), overexploitation to extinction can occur when a species' rarity drives up its market price, enabling profitable harvest of all remaining individuals. Even in the absence of rarity value, however, the harvest of other species can subsidize the overexploitation of a rare species to the point of extinction, a phenomenon termed opportunistic exploitation. These two pathways to extinction have been considered independently, but many traded species experience them simultaneously.In this study, we develop a simple model that incorporates these mechanisms simultaneously and demonstrate that including multiple harvest strategies with market‐based feedbacks fundamentally alters rare species extinction risk and the rate at which overexploitation occurs. As a pertinent case study, we consider the harvest of ground pangolinsSmutsia temminckii.Our results show that pangolin extinction was generally associated with high rarity value, the use of multiple harvest strategies and the simultaneous harvest of a common species that has a fast life history. Pangolin population depletion and short‐term extinction risk were greatest when harvesters used a combination of pursuit and opportunistic (i.e. multi‐species) harvest strategies.Policy implications.Our results suggest that feedbacks between multiple financial incentives to overharvest can exacerbate the risk of extinction of rare species. As a result, continuing to address AAE and opportunistic exploitation as separate extinction pathways may insufficiently capture extinction risk for many exploited species. Criteria for assessing extinction risk or harvest sustainability of exploited species should incorporate multiple drivers of harvest pressure, with an expanded focus on including species with high rarity value that are exploited in multi‐species harvest regimes.

Temminck pangolins relax the precision of body temperature regulation when resources are scarce in a semi-arid environment.

Climate change is impacting mammals both directly (for example, through increased heat) and indirectly (for example, through altered food resources). Understanding the physiological and behavioural responses of mammals in already hot and dry environments to fluctuations in the climate and food availability allows for a better understanding of how they will cope with a rapidly changing climate. We measured the body temperature of seven Temminck's pangolins (Smutsia temminckii) in the semi-arid Kalahari for periods of between 4 months and 2 years. Pangolins regulated body temperature within a narrow range (34-36°C) over the 24-hcycle when food (and hence water, obtained from their prey) was abundant. When food resources were scarce, body temperature was regulated less precisely, 24-h minimum body temperatures were lower and the pangolins became more diurnally active, particularly during winter when prey was least available. The shift toward diurnal activity exposed pangolins to higher environmental heat loads, resulting in higher 24-h maximum body temperatures. Biologging of body temperature to detect heterothermy, or estimating food abundance (using pitfall trapping to monitor ant and termite availability), therefore provide tools to assess the welfare of this elusive but threatened mammal. Although the physiological and behavioural responses of pangolins buffered them against food scarcity during our study, whether this flexibility will be sufficient to allow them to cope with further reductions in food availability likely with climate change is unknown.

Body Size, Defensive Behaviour, and Season Influence Mortality Probability in Wildlife Interactions with Electrified Fences

Like many anthropogenic linear structures, fences are ubiquitous across South Africa and increasingly in the rest of Africa. Fences play a key role in conservation and livelihoods, including inter alia demarcating protected areas, safeguarding vulnerable populations of threatened species, and facilitating food security through the management of livestock and mitigating livestock predation from native predators. However, fences also have several deleterious effects, including curtailing historical animal migration routes, denying animals access to seasonally important resources, and providing a physical barrier on which animals can become entangled or electrocuted. Despite these negative effects being commonly known, few African studies have quantified the threat specifically posed by electrified fences, although several studies have highlighted the risks posed by unelectrified fences. This study investigated vertebrate interactions along 108 km of electrified fencing on a private game farm over nearly five years and analysed the effect of several predictive variables on the outcome of interactions with fencing. Overall, 43 vertebrate species were recorded interacting with the fencing on 782 occasions, resulting in 213 fatal interactions. Medium-sized mammals, specifically steenbok (Raphicerus campestris ) and Temminck's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii ), and large reptiles including rock monitor (Varanus albigularis ) and serrated tent tortoise (Psammobates oculifer ) were particularly prone to fatal interactions. Body size, season and defensive behaviour were the best predictors of a species' tendency for fatal interactions with electrified fencing. This study records several additional species that have not previously been recorded interacting with electrified fencing, and for the first time highlights the potentially large, albeit possibly local, negative effect that electrified fencing has on the rock monitor.

Presumed Tetanus in a Temminck's Pangolin (Smutsia temminckii).

An adult female Temminck's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) confiscated from the illegal wildlife trade presented with an ulcerated lesion of the right forelimb. Neurologic signs and tonic spasms characteristic of tetanus developed after 5 d. Despite supportive treatment, the pangolin died. Tetanus has not previously been reported in any pangolin species.

A novel description of the Vastus lateralis morphology of the Temminck's ground pangolin (Manis temminckii).

The pangolin (Manidae family) is the world's most trafficked animal, yet very little is known about its physiology and metabolism primarily due to its inconspicuous and solitary nature. Skeletal muscle samples from the Vastus lateralis were collected postmortem from a single female Temminck's ground pangolin (Manis temminckii). Samples were analyzed for fiber type composition, fiber size and myosin heavy chain isoform content. The oxidative and glycolytic metabolic capacity was determined through citrate synthase, 3-hydroxyacetyl co A dehydrogenase, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, phosphofructokinase and glycogen phosphorylase enzyme activities. Lastly, antioxidant capacity was determined through superoxide dismutase and catalase enzyme activities, and the total antioxidant capacity. The pangolin metabolic profile was then compared to other endurance and nonendurance mammals, in which data were standardized relative to human endurance athletes in order to provide context. Slow twitch type I fibers, rich in mitochondria were the predominant fiber type within the pangolin indicating a reliance on oxidative derived energy from fats and carbohydrates. This suggests that the pangolin has a high endurance capability when compared to other wild animals and human endurance athletes. This is the first study to investigate the skeletal muscle physiology and metabolism of any pangolin species, in an attempt to further understand this endangered animal and aid with conservation efforts.

Continued availability and sale of pangolins in a major urban bushmeat market in Cameroon despite national bans and the COVID-19 outbreak.

Continued availability and sale of pangolins in a major urban bushmeat market in Cameroon despite national bans and the COVID-19 outbreak.

Internet on animals: Wi‐Fi‐enabled devices provide a solution for big data transmission in biologging

Abstract Biologging devices are deployed on animals to collect ultra‐fine‐scale movement data that reveal subsecond patterns in locomotion or long‐term patterns in motion and space use. Often these two data types, although complementary, are rarely collected within the same study, given the limiting factors of memory space, power requirements and the need to retrieve stored data from animals. Biologging requires a revolutionary advancement in data networking to overcome these restrictions that constrain big data collection; for the continuous recording and remote download of fine‐scale movement and environmental data, from long‐term deployments and multiple individuals. Here, we adopt a strategy from the Internet of Things and develop the use of Wi‐Fi as a solution for big data biologging. Our ‘WildFi’ tag uses pre‐existing, or easy‐to‐set‐up, infrastructure in smartphones and Wi‐Fi gateways. We demonstrate the power of memory management and an embedded modular software architecture for functionality, including collective data retrieval at multiple gateways. We find that Wi‐Fi, together with smart embedded software, increases the retrieval efficiency of biologging data by orders of magnitude compared to other available systems: with a transmission speed of 230 kByte/s and range of ≤200 m that is 11 times faster than Bluetooth low energy and >3000 times faster than LoRaWAN. Case studies on a domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris), aviary‐housed cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) and free‐roaming pangolins (Smutsia temminckii) demonstrate the functionality of the WildFi tag for remote and robust autonomous Wi‐Fi data transmission under a range of conditions. Modularity in software and hardware allows for project‐specific tailoring beyond reconfiguring sampling parameters of a biologger, which we encourage with open‐source sharing of our architecture design. Enhanced communication between animal‐attached devices, Wi‐Fi infrastructure and smartphones, alongside smart and collaborative data retrieval, eases restrictions for big data collection in animal ecology.

Landscape habitat occupancy and distribution of the Wild Ground Pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) in Zimbabwe’s Protected Areas (PAs)

The Smutsia temminckii is the only species of pangolin known to exist in Zimbabwe and is considered vulnerable under the IUCN Red List of threatened species. Distribution of wild S. temminckii in protected areas (PAs) and associated environmental variables are not well defined in Zimbabwe. The study sort to relate key environmental variables (Altitude, rainfall, temperature and vegetation type) to habitat occupancy and distribution of S. temminckii. Data was collected from forty-eight stations based on S.temminckii sightings historical records spanning ten years (2011-2021) done by field rangers, tourists and scientific services research personnel. A review of available literature was done from online sources and station records. A distribution map based on S. temminckii sightings across various PAs in Zimbabwe was developed for this study. Results of this study reveal that S. temminckii occupy PAs in South East low-veld areas, Northwestern Zimbabwe, Mid Zambezi Valley and Nyanga NP. No historical data on S. temminckii sighting in central PAs located in ecological regions IIa, IIb and III of Zimbabwe. Climatic conditions associated with S. temminckii distribution, except for Nyanga NP, are average temperatures above 220C and rainfall between 400mm to 900mm per annum. Landscapes ideal for S. temminckii habitat occupancy have an altitude between 262m-2000m above sea level. Associated vegetation types for habitat occupancy of S. temminckii are the Zambezian and mopane woodlands as well as montane forest grasslands mosaic of Nyanga NP. Future studies should focus on establishing distribution of S. temminckii outside PA, population status and density to inform conservation of this rare and unique species around Zimbabwe.

Do seasonal dietary shifts by Temminck's pangolins compensate for winter resource scarcity in a semi-arid environment?

In response to food scarcity, animals may increase foraging time or shift their diet by including more profitable prey items. Aardvarks (Orycteropus afer) in the semi-arid Kalahari region of southern Africa died, apparently of starvation, because they did not shift their diet when their primary food resource declined following a drought. Whether other myrmecophagous (ant- and termite-eating) mammals alter their diet in response to food scarcity is unclear. We investigated the feeding behaviour (through faecal analysis and direct observations) of six free-living, myrmecophagous Temminck's pangolins (Smutsia temminckii), for two years in the Kalahari. We also collected data on climate and ant and termite availability. Winter was characterised by low prey abundance, but pangolins predominantly selected three insect genera, namely Crematogaster ants, Anoplolepis ants, and Trinervitermes termites, regardless of food availability. Pangolins responded to winter resource scarcity by increasing the proportion of consumed Trinervitermes termites, but the shift did not prevent low energy intake during that period. During the winter of the drier of the two years, pangolins increased foraging time and fed on energy-rich prey. Whether the relatively low dietary flexibility of pangolins will allow them to meet their energy demands as insect populations decline with climate change is not known.