Gross National Income Per Capita Research Articles

Estimation of economic loss by earthquakes in Taiwan Region

Earthquakes in the Taiwan region have caused significant economic losses. We develop a model to assess seismic economic losses in the Taiwan region using the records of economic losses caused by historical earthquakes. Unlike existing models, we introduce Gross National Income Per Capita (GNIPC) as a parameter that responds to the influence of socio-economic development. The results show that our model can accurately estimate the earthquake economic losses in Taiwan region. The difference between the results of this model and those of existing models is evident, indicating differences between the Taiwan region and mainland China regarding geological background, seismic tectonics, and social resistance to earthquakes. The prediction results also imply that the society significantly underestimates the seismic economic losses in the Taiwan region. Our model can help the Taiwan region in disaster prevention and preparedness, contingency planning, allocation of relief resources, and post-disaster socio-economic recovery.

Financial inclusion, financial stability, and poverty reduction in Africa

AbstractFinancial inclusion universally remains one of the critical means to end poverty in the world, especially Africa, where the level of poverty is high. It has however been argued that financial inclusion equally has the tendency to destabilize the financial system, thwarting the poverty reduction efforts, which necessitates the interrogation of the relationship between the variables. This study therefore investigates how financial stability mediates the financial inclusion and poverty reduction relationship in Africa. Using the panel Autoregressive Distributive Lag model, covering a period of 2004–2020, the study found that financial inclusion is positively related to financial stability in both short and long‐run, with education, Gross National Income per capita (GNI) and domestic credit to private sector, contributing to financial stability, and trade openness negatively related to financial stability in the long‐run. The study further established that financial stability is positively related to household consumption expenditure as such leads to poverty reduction with trade openness, government expenditure, GNI, education, domestic credit to private sector, and institutional quality contributing significantly to poverty reduction. This confirms the mediating role financial stability plays in enhancing the impact of financial inclusion on poverty reduction in Africa and must therefore be given the necessary attention, through proper regulatory mechanisms.

ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION: THE EXAMPLE OF THE BALKAN COUNTRIES

Economic growth is an economic topic that attracts a lot of attention in science and research. This is a consequence of the emergence of increasingly frequent regional and global instabilities, which often develop into open economic crises of a larger scale. Therefore, today’s economic stability is largely threatened due to the slowdown in GDP growth. Economic growth is influenced by various economic factors, with education being one of the most important, which undeniably boosts productivity, competitiveness, and growth. Among the first, this topic was elaborated by Solow. In this research, regression analysis was used to analyze the influence of several selected variables that determine the state of education. The research results are presented in two models. The dependent variable is Gross National Income per capita (GNIpc), and the independent variables in the first model are years of education, macroeconomic stability, and ability to accept information technologies. In the first model, none of the independent variables is individually significant for the movement of GNIpc. The continuation of the analysis (second model) excludes the variable of macroeconomic stability. The final results are significant for the movement of GNIpc and show that an increase of one year in education leads to an increase in GNIpc by 4408 units, while an increase in the speed of ICT adoption leads to an increase in GNIpc by 543 units. Thus, the research results show a positive and significant influence of the selected independent variables on the economic growth of the Balkan countries.

Radiotherapy Resources in Latin America and the Caribbean: An International Atomic Energy Agency Analysis of Current and Projected Needs

The inequitable access to radiotherapy (RT) is recognized to be a complex undertaking that will require sustained work identifying gaps and mobilizing efforts to fill in those gaps. Data can support policy-makers as they embark on programs to reduce premature mortality from cancer in their countries and regions. The purpose of this analysis is to identify the current gaps and needs in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). We created a database of 41 countries in LAC using open-source data, including data on population size (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs data), gross national income per capita (GNIPC) (World Bank Data), current and projected cancer incidence and mortality (Globocan 2020). The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Directory of Radiotherapy Centers (DIRAC) was used to identify the number and operational status of megavoltage (MV) teletherapy machines (Cobalt-60 and Linear Accelerators LINACs) and brachytherapy facilities (HDR and LDR). To calculate current and projected gaps in external beam RT (EBRT) facilities, we matched DIRAC data with Globocan cancer incidence data for 2020 and projections for 2025 and 2030 while applying a 64% optimal EBRT utilization rate (taking into account re-treatment). For brachytherapy, analysis took into account both HDR and LDR capacity and was primarily focused on needs based on current and projected incidence of cervical cancer cases in LAC. EBRT was available in 32 (76%) of 41 countries. There were 742 RT centers in 32 countries with a total of 1131 MV units. Average coverage in 2022 based on an optimal utilization rate of 64% was 64%. LINACs accounted for 87% of the total MV units and Cobalt-60 capacity decreased to 13% of total teletherapy capacity compared to capacity in 2018. Most countries clustered in the same range of GNIPC to teletherapy units per 1000 cases, however outliers were most notable in the Caribbean. The median GNIPC was $6340 and the median MV units per 1000 cancer cases were 1.4. The current deficit in MV units is estimated at 672 megavoltage units and projected to be 2455 units by 2030 representing more than double the current capacity. 28 out of 41 countries (68%) had brachytherapy including 279 installed services, both HDR and LDR. At a 75% optimal utilization rate of brachytherapy in locally advanced cervical cancer, the current brachytherapy capacity in LAC could treat 108,420 patients with cervical cancer/year, which meets the current needs in the region albeit with significant inequity in distribution of resources. There is 15% improvement in the current EBRT capacity in LAC compared to 2018. However, there is still shortage of at least 672 extra units needed. By 2030, the need for MV units will be double the current capacity. The current brachytherapy capacity meets needs albeit with inequitable distribution across the region primarily in the Caribbean.

Impact of Selected Macroeconomic Variables in Economic Growth: Empirical Study in the Philippines

This study investigates the relationship between foreign direct investment (FDI), household final consumption expenditure (HFCE), gross national income per capita (GNI), and the GDP growth rate in the Philippines. This study uses OLS estimation with annual time series data spanning 1981 to 2021 to assess the impact of these variables on the nation's economic progress. The Philippines' economy has developed significantly in recent years. Because the GDP growth rate is an important indicator of economic progress, policymakers must understand the factors that contribute to it in order to sustain economic growth. The study's findings offer important insights into the drivers of economic progress in the Philippines. Understanding the impact of FDI, HFCE, and GNI per capita on GDP growth rate enables policymakers to make informed decisions that encourage sustainable economic growth and increase the well-being of the entire population.

The Determinants Affecting the Violent Crime in Indonesia and Thailand (1990–2019)

Due to the global increase in crime, many countries and regions have ceased to be safe places to live. The growth of global crime figures leads to the deterioration of humankind’s quality of life. This study aims to examine the causality of the total violent crime determinants in Indonesia and Thailand from 1990 to 2019. The data were collected from the Global Economy and the Nasdaq Database. The variables used in this study are the total violent crime, Gross National Income per capita (GNIpc), unemployment rate, social security expenditure, and value of alcoholic beverage consumption. All the variables were converted into a logarithmic form. Both Indonesia and Thailand’s total violent crimes contain these wrongdoings: murder, rape, robbery (with firearms and without firearms), which includes gang robbery, and causing bodily injuries. This research has two models as both analyze different countries: Indonesia and Thailand. The empirical tests have proven the variables affecting the model of Indonesia and Thailand in the long run and short run based on the data from 1990–2019. In the long run, total violent crime, the unemployment rate, and alcoholic beverage consumption will affect the model of Indonesia by bringing equilibrium whenever disequilibrium happens. In the short run, the GNIpc has a unidirectional relationship with the Unemployment rate. In Thailand, alcoholic beverage consumption is the only reliant variable which will be self-perpetuated and affect the model in the long run. In the short run, alcoholic beverage consumption will be affected by the Unemployment rate and GNIpc of Thailand. In addition, instead of total violent crime being the dependent variable, it could affect Thailand’s social security expenditures in the short run. This study provided a clearer view of the violent crime determinants in Indonesia and Thailand. Moreover, these empirical findings could help in policy-making to curb the worsening social violence in both countries.

Commercial dynamics of mexican tomato in the framework of the USMCA: an analysis of trade with the united states using the gravity model

Objective: Within the framework of the treaty between Mexico, the United States and Canada (USMCA), the objective of this study is to provide a description through econometric methods of the variables that influence tomato trade, in addition to describing the commercial dynamics of the sector in both Mexico and the United States. Design / Methodology / Approach: A gravity model was applied to investigate and evaluate the role of some of the main economic and geographic variables as determinants of Mexican trade flows. Results: The results show that the most important variables are the US gross national income per capita (GNIPC), as well as the US per capita production and consumption volumes calculated from apparent national consumption (ANC). It was also found that the variable GNIPC is better to determine the model than the gross domestic product per capita (GDPPC), due to the qualities of the variables. Limitations / Implications: Statistical records for the period 1994 to 2020 were taken into account, considering all varieties of tomato produced and exported. Findings / Conclusions: Regarding income, the variable with the best fit in the model was in GNIPC, which was adopted in the World Bank’s current way of classifying countries by income, variables such as consumption and production behaved in a typical way increasing and decreasing the volume traded. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is one of the most competitive and profitable agricultural products in Mexico.

Female Human Capital and Economic Growth in Sudan: Empirical Evidence for Women’s Empowerment

Human capital in general spurs economic growth. Female human capital in terms of education and health in particular is important for economic growth in countries where poverty and gender inequalities are pervasive, such as Sudan. This study aimed to investigate the role of female human capital in economic growth in Sudan, together with female labor force participation and women’s participation in the national parliament. The study applied a basic autoregressive distributed lag model ARDL and a nonlinear (NARDL) accounting for structural breaks to time-series data over the period 1975–2021. The bounds tests revealed that female human capital variables and economic growth have a long-run equilibrium relationship. The empirical results revealed that female human capital has a negative effect on gross national income per capita (GNIP). However, female labor participation was found to have a significant positive effect on economic growth in both models. Prevalence of HIV/AIDS among women of age 14–25 has a significant negative effect on economic growth, which is likely also reflecting the negative effect of female human capital. Results also showed that women’s participation in the parliament has positive and significant effect on economic growth in the short run only. The study argues for enhancing female human capital via female enrollment in education and through the promotion of women’s health, including combatting HIV/AIDS. Effective female labor participation can be enhanced through reductions in women’s vulnerability in employment and increasing their work in waged formal sectors. Women’s political empowerment could foster long-term growth, but its quality aspects must be ascertained.

Human Development Index and Under-five Mortality in the Middle East and North African Countries

Background: This study aimed to examine the impact of the human development index (HDI) and other key macroeconomic variables on under-five mortality rates in the select Middle East and North African (MENA) countries from 2003 to 2019. Methods: The study used a panel data method to examine the impact of macroeconomic ‎variables, such as HDI, gross national income per capita ‎‎(GNI), urbanization rate, government health expenditure as a percentage of gross ‎domestic product (GDP), and income distribution inequality index (Gini) on under-five mortality rates in the select MENA countries. Results: The HDI, GNI, urbanization rate, and government health expenditure share to GDP, have decreasing effects on the under-five mortality rate, while inequality in income distribution worsens health status and increases the under-five mortality rate. Conclusions: By strengthening the HDI and increasing economic growth, employment rate, and per capita income, people in the community will have access to health services, thereby reducing under-five mortality.

Consumption of carbonated soft drinks, fruits and vegetables and association with macroeconomic indicators: the analysis of students from seventy-four countries (2003-2015).

This study aimed to compare fruits and vegetables (FV), and carbonated soft drink (CSD) consumption among adolescents from seventy-four countries, according to macroeconomic indicators. This is an ecological study, developed with countries evaluated through the Global School-based Student Health Survey (2003-2014) and the National School Health Survey (PeNSE-Brazil, 2015). The percentages of students in each country who consumed CSD and FV daily and their association with the Human Development Index (HDI) and the Gross National Income per capita (GNIpc) were assessed. Scatter plots were constructed for each marker, and a multilevel model was tested to consider the effects of region in the associations. The overall prevalence of daily CSD consumption was 54·1 %. CSD consumption was positively associated with HDI and GNIpc through multilevel models, and Central and South America showed a considerable higher consumption compared with other regions. Overall, FV daily consumption was 67·9 % and 74·6 %, respectively, and no associations with macroeconomic indicators were found. The study shows concerning rates of CSD consumption among adolescents, and a trend of increased consumption with the improvement of the country's development and GNIpc. This points for the importance of public policies that regulate food and beverage industries to reduce CSD consumption and related co-morbidities among adolescents.

Associations between socioeconomic resources and adiposity traits in adults: Evidence from Samoa.

In low- and middle-income countries, earlier in economic development, obesity tends to be more prevalent in high socioeconomic resource groups compared to low. Later in development, the distribution of obesity tends to show the opposite pattern, becoming more prevalent in those with low socioeconomic resources. This shift in obesity prevalence tends to occur between a gross national income per capita (GNI) of US$1,000 to $4,000 dollars. Whether a similar pattern occurs in Pacific Island countries has not been well documented. In Samoa, the GNI rose to US$3,200 dollars in 2010 at which time over 80% of adults were overweight or obese. We aimed to understand the association of socioeconomic resources, assessed by household assets, with adult body mass index (BMI) and abdominal circumference (AC) in Samoa. Data were from a genome-wide association study for obesity among 3,370 Samoans aged 24.5-<65 years in 2010. Household asset scores were calculated based on ownership of consumer durables, housing construction, and access to basic services. Sex-stratified multivariate linear regressions were used to assess adiposity trait differences by household asset ownership, after controlling for age, education, and household urbanicity. Higher asset ownership was associated with higher BMI and AC and the positive relationship remained robust after controlling for potential confounders. Despite significant economic growth preceding the year 2010 in Samoa, the obesity burden had not shifted to low socioeconomic groups in a similar way that has been observed in countries further along in the economic transition. The mechanism by which socioeconomic resources influence adiposity is complex and may be particularly complicated in Samoa by migrant remittances received both as cash and household assets. Social and physical environments may constrain the positive health behavior change necessary to reduce obesity even in the context of high socioeconomic position, a situation that requires further investigation.

The Beauty of Life as a New Aspect of the Quality of Life Characteristic

This article attempts to substantiate, in the light of the synergetic research method, a new aspect of the quality of life - its beauty, its creative and constructive potential.&#x0D; The beauty of life characterizes its quality not through its separate component, but using the same components of the level and quality of life. Let’s recall the elements of the standard of living: health and life expectancy, production of the gross national income per capita (GNI), educational and qualification standard of the population, employment, housing and communal living conditions, environment, social security of the people, etc., and quality of life indicators also - through subjective feelings and assessments of living conditions - satisfaction with oneself and one’s life as a whole, the state of the country's economy, satisfaction with labor activity, state democracy in the country, government control, a sense of harmony with socio-psychological and many other aspects of life, etc.&#x0D; The beauty of life describes its quality through its new aspect, namely, the emotional and aesthetic state of life. Within the limited framework of the article, the beauty of life as a creative potential is justified by us with such types and forms of labor as:&#x0D; &#x0D; the work of ballerinas and their partners, musicians;&#x0D; through the results of labor: composers, artists and sculptors, workers employed in the fields of mechanical engineering, clothing, food, other industries and agriculture;&#x0D; directly through the types of heroic, selfless and noble labor.&#x0D; &#x0D; Partly, the work justifies the beauty of life as a new side of its quality through a happy family-intimate life with baby talk and crying, which requires, in addition to love and children, normal and comfortable housing and communal living conditions.

Effects of air pollution on children from a socioecological perspective

BackgroundCountry-level inequality in life expectancy (ILE) and deaths of children under age five due to air pollution (DCAP) can be influenced by country-level income per capita, solid fuel, electrification, and natural resource depletion. The ILE and DCAP in the short-term are useful indicators that can help in developing ways to reduce environmental threats. This study confirms evidence for ILE and DCAP as the effects of environmental threats by country-level income, energy, and natural resource levels from a socioecological approach.MethodsThis study based on life expectancy and children data on 164 countries acquired from the United Nations Development Programme. We obtained the country-level socioecological data from the United Nations and the World Bank database. We assessed the associations between ILE, DCAP, and the country-level indicators applying correlations coefficient and the regression models.ResultsThese study findings showed considerable correlations between ILE and country-level socioecological indicators: gross national income per capita (GNI), non-solid fuel (NSF), electrification rate (ER), and natural resource depletion (NRD). The DCAP in short-term predictors were low NSF and low ER (R2 = 0.552), and ILE predictors were low GNI, NSF, and ER and higher NRD (R2 = 0.816). Thus, the countries with higher incomes and electrification rates and more sustainable natural resources had lower expected DCAP in the short-term and ILE in the long-term.ConclusionsBased on our results, we confirmed that country-level income, energy, and natural resource indicators had important effects on ILE in long-term and DCAP in short-term. We recommend that countries consider targeting high standards of living and national incomes, access to non-solid fuel and electricity as energy sources, and sustainable natural resources to reduce ILE and DCAP in short-term.

Analysis on the Relationships on the Global Distribution of the World Happiness Index and Selected Economic Development Indicators

World Happiness Index generally indicates the level of happiness and sat-isfaction among the residents in a given country. This study was conducted to assess the relationships of the world happiness index (WHI) and related economic development indicators consisting of the variables of life expec-tancy (LE), expected years in schooling (EY), gross national income per capita (GNI) and the corruption perception index (CPI) of selected countries which were retrieved from online resources. Two separate cluster analysis was conducted on the 78 countries, and the five variables studied. The first results revealed 50 countries were assigned to cluster 1, 20 states to cluster 2, two countries in the group, and the final six countries in cluster 4. The poor performing countries representing cluster 1 were again subjected to a second cluster analysis test. The indicative results of the analysis showed a significant improvement in the grouping of countries. Group 1 has now 23 states, cluster 2 with 14 countries, and cluster 3 with 13 countries. The results of the two separate clustering analysis conducted yielded not a single group dominated as the best performing cluster in terms of the economic variables. However, cluster 1 considered the poor performing cluster during the two tests, remained consistent. In conclusion, the study claimed that the “Quality of Life” largely depends on the performance of countries based on the given economic indices.

New approaches to ranking countries for the allocation of development assistance for health: choices, indicators and implications.

The distributions of income and health within and across countries are changing. This challenges the way donors allocate development assistance for health (DAH) and particularly the role of gross national income per capita (GNIpc) in classifying countries to determine whether countries are eligible to receive assistance and how much they receive. Informed by a literature review and stakeholder consultations and interviews, we developed a stepwise approach to the design and assessment of country classification frameworks for the allocation of DAH, with emphasis on critical value choices. We devised 25 frameworks, all which combined GNIpc and at least one other indicator into an index. Indicators were selected and assessed based on relevance, salience, validity, consistency, and availability and timeliness, where relevance concerned the extent to which the indicator represented country’s health needs, domestic capacity, the expected impact of DAH, or equity. We assessed how the use of the different frameworks changed the rankings of low- and middle-income countries relative to a country’s ranking based on GNIpc alone. We found that stakeholders generally considered needs to be the most important concern to be captured by classification frameworks, followed by inequality, expected impact and domestic capacity. We further found that integrating a health-needs indicator with GNIpc makes a significant difference for many countries and country categories—and especially middle-income countries with high burden of unmet health needs—while the choice of specific indicator makes less difference. This together with assessments of relevance, salience, validity, consistency, and availability and timeliness suggest that donors have reasons to include a health-needs indicator in the initial classification of countries. It specifically suggests that life expectancy and disability-adjusted life year rate are indicators worth considering. Indicators related to other concerns may be mainly relevant at different stages of the decision-making process, require better data, or both.

The challenge of middle-income countries to development assistance for health: recipients, funders, both or neither?

Recent developments have transformed the role and characteristics of middle-income countries (MICs). Many stakeholders now question the appropriate role of MICs in the system of development assistance for health (DAH), and key funders have already recast their approach to these countries. The pressing question is whether MICs should be recipients, funders, both or neither. The answer has deep implications for individual countries and their citizens, and for the DAH system as a whole. We clarify the fundamental issues involved and emphasise a special feature of many MICs: mid-level gross national income per capita (GNIpc) combined with substantial health needs and large inequalities. We discuss the trade-off between concerns for capacity and need, and illustrate a capacity-based approach to setting the level of a GNIpc eligibility threshold. We also discuss how needs-based exceptions and incentive-preserving instruments can complement such a threshold. Against this background, we outline options for the future roles of MICs in various circumstances. We conclude that major players in the DAH system have reason to reconsider the criteria for allocating DAH among countries and the norms for which countries should contribute and how much.

Cataract Surgical Rate and Socioeconomics: A Global Study.

Cataract is the leading cause of blindness and cataract surgical rate (CSR) is used as a proxy indicator of access to cataract services in a country. The aim of this study was to explore the associations between the CSR and the economic development of countries in terms of gross domestic product per capital (GDP/P) and gross national income per capita (GNI/P). We systematically searched OVID (Medline and Embase), Pubmed, Embase.com, ISI Web of Science, and Cochrane Library databases, and retrieved additional data from unpublished reports. Cataract surgical rates and economic indicators (GDP/P, GNI/P) were collected for each country from 2005 to 2014. Complete data were used for the 50 largest countries according to World Health Organization (WHO) population estimates. Linear correlations between GDP/P and CSR were calculated. Cataract surgical rate data over two periods were used for analysis: 2005 to 2009 and 2010 to 2014 (CSR in 2009 or nearest year, CSR in 2014 or nearest year). Over the study period, CSR data were available for 152 countries across both time periods. Most of the CSR data were obtained from nongovernment organization (NGO) reports, including WHO reports. A good linear correlation between CSR and GDP/P was found overall, nearest to 2009 (β = 0.162, Linear: y = 0.162x + 282.242; R2 = 0.665, P < 0.001). Regression analysis of CSR nearest to 2014 produced similar findings, with significant correlations between CSR and GDP/P (Linear: y = 0.208x + 94.008; R2 = 0.785, P < 0.001). When using GNI/P as an economic indicator, similarly excellent lines of fit were obtained. After adjusting for time and country, CSR was significantly associated with GDP/P (Coefficient = 0.147, R2 = 0.759, P < 0.001), and GNI/P (Coefficient = 0.152, R2 = 0.757, P < 0.001). Most countries had an increase in CSRs over time, with the greatest increases observed for Iran and Argentina. Cataract surgical rate and economic indicators are closely associated, indicating the strong influence of resource availability on healthcare delivery. Considering this relationship, it is important to be innovative in delivery of low-cost services and invest strategically in capacity development to meet cataract surgical need in low-resource settings.

Global Dental Research Productivity and Its Association With Human Development, Gross National Income, and Political Stability

ObjectiveThe objective of this study is to examine the associations between country level factors (such as human development, economic productivity, and political stability) and their dental research productivity. MethodsThis study is a cross-sectional analysis of bibliometric data from Scopus search engine. Human Development Index (HDI), Gross National Income per capita (GNI), and Failed State Index measures were the independent variables. Outcomes were “Total number of publications (articles or articles in press) in the field of dentistry” and “Total number of publications in the field of dentistry per million population.” Non-parametric tests were used to examine the association between the independent and outcome variables. ResultsDuring the year 2013, a total of 11,952 dental research articles were published across the world. The top 5 publishing countries were United States, Brazil, India, Japan, and United Kingdom. “Very High” HDI countries had significantly higher number of total dental research articles and dental research articles per million population when compared to the “High HDI,” “Medium HDI,” and “Low HDI” countries (p < 0.0001). There was a significant linear relationship between the GNI quartile income levels and outcome metrics (p ≤ 0.007). Countries which were highly politically stable were associated with significantly higher dental research productivity (p < 0.0001). ConclusionsThere appears to be a regional concentration of articles with just five countries contributing to over 50% of all articles. The human development and economic development of a country are linearly correlated with dental research productivity. Dental research productivity also increases with increasing political stability of a country.

The Main Determinants of Under 5 Mortality Rate (U5MR) in OECD Countries: A Cross-Sectional Study

Introduction: Child mortality indices are key element that reflects health Status of societies and inform policy makers to take suitable policies to reduce them. This study was performed to examine the main determinants of under-5 mortality rate (U5MR) in OECD countries in two cross-sections, 2010 and 2013, and the results of them was compared. Material and Methods: This was a cross- sectional study. The data on U5MR,health expenditure, Gross National Income per capita (GNI), Physician and nurses’ density, Ratio of female to male primary, secondary and tertiary school enrollment was gathered from world health organization (WHO) and World bank datasets. Pearson correlation and regression models was used for analyzing the data for years 2010 and 2013. Stata 11 was used for analyzing the data. Results: Pearson correlation was negative for all variable in 2010 and all variables, expect Ratio of female to male secondary enrollment, had negative correlation with U5MR. Regression analysis showed that, all variable, except Ratio of female to male primary enrollment had negative effect on U5MR in 2010. Also, GNI had negative effect on U5MR in 2010 and its coefficient was significant. The β-coefficient of healthcare expenditures was -0.964 and -0.746 in 2010 and 2013, respectively and was statistically significant just in 2010. Two of three variables in which included for women literacy had negative effect on U5MR in 2010 and all of them had negative effect in 2013. Conclusion: The study results showed that all variables, including health expenditures, gross national income per capita, and density of physicians and nurses and female literacy, had invers effect on under-five mortality rate in OECD countries.

The Association between Maternal Mortality and Non-Medical factors in African Countries

The medical expertise to treat to complications arising from pregnancy and childbirth has not spared girls and women in developing countries from dying of such conditions. Developing countries account for the bulk of the global share of maternal deaths with complications of pregnancy and childbirth being the leading cause of death in young women aged between 15 and 49. Sub-Saharan Africa is responsible for nearly three-fifths of all global maternal deaths which have saddled it with notoriously high levels of maternal mortality ratios, a concern that has been red-flagged internationally and regionally. Most studies on maternal mortality in Africa have been confined to an examination of factors impinging on maternal mortality from both medical and socioeconomic standpoints for individual country’s based on survey data. Our study differs from others as it employs logistic regression to look at the association between non-medical factors and maternal mortality nationally for all African countries. Whilst the results from the logistic regression suggests that there is no statistically significant relationship between any of the variables and maternal mortality, the odds ratio for Human Development Index (HDI) and Gross National Income per capita (GNI) imply that African countries with low HDI are about three time more likely to have high maternal mortality compared to high HDI countries. Similarly, African countries with low GNI are about five times more likely to have high maternal mortality compared to high GNI countries.