Grid Of Lead-acid Battery Research Articles

Grain Structure and Tensile Properties of As-Cast and Aged Pb–1.1%Sn–0.05%Ca

Abstract The effects of temperature parameters of casting procedure and aging time at room temperature on the grain structure and tensile properties of Pb–1.1%Sn–0.05%Ca alloy for positive grids of lead-acid batteries were studied by means of optical metallography, scanning electron microscopy, and tensile properties measurements. It was established that with melt or mold temperatures rising, grains in the alloy structure become larger, which causes an increase in the elongation and a decrease in the ultimate tensile strength of the alloy. Natural aging for 32 days does not noticeably change grain size but affects tensile properties of the alloy. Final ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, and Young’s modulus are found to be 2.7, 4.9, and 1.3 times higher, respectively, but the elongation is 2.4 times lower because of the precipitation of intermetallic phases.

Tensile properties of as-cast and aged Pb-Sn-Ca alloys for positive grids of lead-acid batteries

Tensile properties of as-cast and aged Pb-Sn-Ca alloys for positive grids of lead-acid batteries

Communication—Improving Corrosion Resistance of Lead-Alloy Positive Grid of Lead-Acid Battery by an Electrochemical Prepassivation Interphase

Lead-acid battery (LAB) has a huge world market in both energy storage and power supply. However, most LAB failures are caused by the serious corrosion of positive grids. To this, we propose an electrochemical prepassivation strategy to form a compact interphase on the lead-alloy grid surface composed of lead oxides and lead sulfate, exactly the same as lead paste. The results show that the corrosion resistance of pre-passivated lead alloy is improved due to the inhibition of vertical growth of corrosion layer, providing a feasible solution to prolong the service life of LAB.

Development of titanium-based positive grids for lead acid batteries with enhanced lightweight, corrosion resistance and lifetime

Lead acid batteries suffer from low energy density and positive grid corrosion, which impede their wide-ranging application and development. In light of these challenges, the use of titanium metal and its alloys as potential alternative grid materials presents a promising solution due to their low density and exceptional corrosion resistance properties. We present a titanium substrate grid with a sandwich structure suitable for deployment in the positive electrode of lead acid batteries. This innovative design features a titanium base, an intermediate layer, and a surface metal layer. The grid boasts noteworthy qualities such as being lightweight and corrosion-resistant, which confer enhanced energy density and cycle life to the lead acid batteries. The research results show that the titanium substrate grid functions well as the positive current collector in lead acid batteries, exhibiting great integration with the positive active material. Under 0.5 C discharge rate at 100 % depth of discharge (DoD), the titanium-based positive grid displays a remarkable cycle life of 185 cycles, as 3 times long compared to the reported data. This surpasses the performance of other lightweight grids, establishing the titanium substrate grid as a promising avenue for developing high-performance lead acid batteries and improving their specific energy.

Effects of Sb and/or Sn concentrations on the SbSn formation in a ternary melt-spun Pb–Sb–Sn alloy

The Pb–Sb–Sn alloy still considered a mandatory choice in the production of the metallic grids in lead-acid batteries. This work aims to study the effects of the commutative concentration of Sb and Sn on the formation of SbSn IMC in ternary melt-spun Pb–Sb–Sn alloy, as well as the effects of initiated on its structural, mechanical and electrical properties. X-ray diffractions (XRD), Dynamic resonance technique, Vickers hardness tester, and High Precision Micro-ohmmeter were used to investigate the melt-spun Pb–Sb–Sn alloys. The results showed that a balanced Sb–Sn content in the melt-spun Pb80–Sb10–Sn10 alloy results in a high concentration of refined SbSn and small particle sizes for α-Pb and SbSn (44.37 and 20.13 nm respectively), low lattice distortion (4.56 × 10−4), low cell volume (120.993 (Å)3), and the highest density (9.232 g/cm3) compared to that of the other melt-spun alloys. Mechanical improvements in terms of room-temperature dynamic Young's modulus (20.8 GPa), bulk modulus (42.3 GPa), shear modulus (7.2 GPa), and Vickers micro-hardness (115.706 MPa) have been revealed, which are strongly related to structural changes. The refined and high concentration of SbSn is responsible for its improved electrical conduction and electrical stability at elevated temperatures (its electrical performance). The aforementioned characteristics suggest that melt-spun alloy is more reliable for use in harsh environments, such as under the hood of a vehicle.

Electrodeposition of Pb and PbO2 on Graphite Felt in Membraneless Flow-Through Reactor: A Method to Prepare Lightweight Electrode Grids for Lead-Acid Batteries.

One of the possible ways of mitigating the primary lead-acid battery downside—mass— is to replace the heavy lead grids that can add up to half of the total electrode’s mass. The grids can be exchanged for a lightweight, chemically inert, and conductive material such as graphite felt. To reduce carbon surface area, Pb/PbO2 can be electrochemically deposited on graphite felt. A flow-through reactor was applied to enhance penetration of adequate coverage of graphite felt fibers. Three types of electrolytes (acetate, nitrate, and methanesulfonate) and two additives (ligninsulfonate and Triton X-100) were tested. The prepared composite electrodes showed greater mechanical strength, up to 5 times lower electrical resistivity, and acted as Pb and PbO2 electrodes in sulfuric acid electrolytes.

Electrochemical and Metallurgical Behavior of Lead-Magnesium Casting Alloys as Grids for Lead-Acid Batteries

Electrochemical and Metallurgical Behavior of Lead-Magnesium Casting Alloys as Grids for Lead-Acid Batteries

Investigation of Pb-Sr and Pb-Ca Binary Alloys as Grids for Lead-Acid Batteries

Investigation of Pb-Sr and Pb-Ca Binary Alloys as Grids for Lead-Acid Batteries

Evaluation of the effect of additive group five elements on the properties of Pb-Ca-Sn-Al alloy as the positive grid for lead-acid batteries

As an important part of lead-acid batteries, the grid is mainly used to support active substances and conduct current. Currently, Pb-Ca-Sn-Al alloys are widely used as materials for valve-regulated lead-acid battery grids. The influence of bismuth, barium, strontium, and germanium as alloying additives on the physical and electrochemical behaviors of Pb-Ca-Sn-Al alloys was studied by the methods of metallographic, cyclic voltammetry, linear scanning voltammetry, AC impedance, and scanning electron microscopy. The results show that the addition of Bi and Ba can increase the grain size of the alloy and reduce the intergranular corrosion and corrosion rate of Pb-Ca-Sn-Al alloy. Furthermore, the addition of Bi and Ba could inhibit the growth of Pb (II) and PbO2 in corrosion layer and improve the corrosion resistance of the alloy. Significantly, Bi and Ba will reduce the oxygen evolution overpotential of the alloy by about 30 mV, which will play important roles on the maintenance-free performance of lead-acid batteries. Both Sr and Ge promote the grain corrosion and intergranular corrosion of the alloy, reducing the corrosion resistance of the alloy. Therefore, improving the performance and corrosion life of the grid by using additives is an important approach to further extending the service life of lead-acid batteries.

The influences of silver and zinc addition on the electrochemical performances of the Pb–Ca–Sn Grids for lead acid batteries

The silver and zinc addition on the electrochemical performances of the Pb–Ca–Sn Grids were investigated. The corrosion film structure, phase composition and electrochemical performances of Pb − 0.08 wt.% Ca − 1.2 wt.% Sn alloy, Pb − 0.08 wt.% Ca − 1.2 wt.% Sn − 0.03 wt.% Ag alloy and Pb − 0.08wt.% Ca − 1.2 wt.% Sn − 0.06 wt.% Zn alloy in a 1.28 g/mL of H2SO4 solution were studied by SEM observation, metallographic study, XRD, CV test and Constant DC discharge. It was found that the corrosion film of the alloy Pb – 0.08 wt.% Ca – 1.2 wt.% Sn appears as flaky crystal structure, while with the addition of 0.03% Ag and 0.06% Zn into Pb – 0.08 wt.% Ca – 1.2 wt.% Sn, the corrosion film being transformed into the crystalline columnar, compact structure. XRD analysis shows that the relative diffraction density of PbO2 increases with the addition of Ag and Zn. The capacity loss of the battery with the Pb–Ca–Sn–Zn grids is significant less than that with the Pb–Ca–Sn–Ag and Pb–Ca–Sn grids, and the life of battery with the Pb–Ca–Sn–Zn grids is longer than that with the Pb–Ca–Sn–Ag and Pb–Ca–Sn grids. The addition of Zn into Pb–Ca–Sn alloy can obviously improve the corrosion resistance of the alloy and form a new positive grid material for the lead-acid battery.

Electrochemical and Metallurgical Behavior of Lead-Aluminum Casting Alloys as Grids for Lead-Acid Batteries

Electrochemical and Metallurgical Behavior of Lead-Aluminum Casting Alloys as Grids for Lead-Acid Batteries

Synthesis and application of a novel Cu/RGO@Pb alloy for lead-acid batteries

In this work, a novel Cu/RGO@Pb alloy was prepared successfully and tested in the simulated lead-acid battery environment. In preparing the novel alloy, Cu/RGO composite was firstly synthesized in order to increase the wettability of RGO to Pb, and then the composite was added to the molten lead to obtain the target alloy. Scanning electron microscope, energy dispersive spectrometer, X-ray diffraction as well as electrochemical measurements were employed to evaluate the performance of the obtained composite and alloy. Results show that the prepared Cu/RGO@Pb possessed higher oxygen evolution over-potential and lower hydrogen evolution over-potential than the contrast alloy, indicating this novel alloy was more suitable for using as positive grids in lead acid batteries. Moreover, the RGO additive could inhibit the formation of Pb(II) and Pb(IV) film on the surface of the alloy, which could enhance the deep-charge/discharge performance of the grids and improve the corrosion resistance.

Effect of Tin Addition on the Corrosion Behavior of Lead-Calcium-Tin Grids in Lead-Acid Batteries

Pb-Ca-Sn alloys are used as grids in lead-acid batteries with Ca concentrations that range from 0.03-0.05 wt.%. Grids that contain 0.03 wt.% Ca have been proven to be resistant to corrosion, making them the ideal alloys for positive and negative grids of stationary batteries. Additives such as Sn have been added to improve the corrosion resistance, the electrochemical and the mechanical properties of the battery. This study aims to determine the effect of Sn coating on the corrosion behavior and the service life of Pb-Ca-Sn grids. The corrosion behavior was determined using weight loss method. Three batteries, each one composed of six corrosion cells, were prepared. Four positive plates, namely one control grid and three experimental grids, comprise each corrosion cell. The grids were submerged in sulfuric acid (H2SO4) with a specific gravity of 1.28 and charged with 1.25 A. Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX) was used to determine the composition of the grids and surface morphology was examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Single factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95% confidence level, suggests that the amount of Sn coating significantly affects the corrosion behavior of the grids. Results show that corrosion resistance of grids greatly improves with increasing thickness of Sn coating.

Novel lead-graphene and lead-graphite metallic composite materials for possible applications as positive electrode grid in lead-acid battery

Novel lead-graphene and lead-graphite metallic composites which melt at temperature of the melting point of lead were investigated as possible positive current collectors for lead acid batteries in sulfuric acid solution. Scanning electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, difference scanning calorimetry, cyclic voltammetry and prolonged corrosion tests were employed to characterize the effect of the newly proposed lead-carbon metallic composites on the structure and electrochemical properties of positive grid material. Both lead-graphene and lead-graphite metallic composite materials show the similar electrochemical characteristics to metallic lead in the voltage range where the positive electrodes of lead acid batteries operate.It has been shown that carbon both as graphene and graphite does not participate in the electrochemical process but improve corrosion and electrochemical characteristics of both metallic composite materials. No products of interaction of lead with sulfuric acid were formed on the surface of graphene and graphite so as it was not found additional peaks of carbon discharge on voltammograms which could be attributed to the carbon. Graphene inclusions in lead prevent formation of leady oxide nanocrystals which deteriorate discharge characteristics of positive electrode of LAB.Both lead-graphene alloy and lead-graphite metallic composite proved excellent electrochemical and corrosion behavior and can be used as positive grids in lead acid batteries of new generation.

Effect of boric acid on corrosion and electrochemical performance of Pb-0.08{\%} Ca-1.1{\%} Sn alloys containing Cu, As, and Sb impurities for manufacture of grids of lead-acid batteries

The electrochemical performance of lead-acid batteries made of Pb--Ca--Sn alloys with and without 0.1% of each of Cu, As, and Sb individually and combined in 4.0 M H_2SO_4 in the absence and presence of 0.4 M H_3BO_3 was studied. Both impurities and H_3BO_3 were found to reduce the corrosion rate. Cyclic voltammetry revealed that the presence of impurities or H_3BO_3 significantly retarded the formation of large crystal PbSO_4. H_3BO_3 increased the rates of oxygen and hydrogen evolution reactions for all alloys. Impedance measurement was used to quantify the amounts of PbSO_4 and PbO in the initial stage of the oxidation. H_3BO_3 decreased the positive grid corrosion of all alloys, while impurities increased it. Although impurities increased the self-discharge during constant current discharge, H_3BO_3 was found to decrease it, except for the alloy containing the 3 impurities and the Cu-containing alloy. Under open-circuit conditions, H_3BO_3 increased significantly the self-discharge rate, but impurities were found to suppress it.

Effect of As, Cu and Sb impurities on performance of Pb‐Ca‐Sn grids of lead‐acid batteries

AbstractThe performance of Pb‐Ca‐Sn grids of lead‐acid batteries made from recycled lead in 4 M H2SO4 in the absence and presence of traces of Cu, As and Sb, as potential impurities in the recycling process at 0.1% level, is investigated by electrochemical methods. The study includes the effect of each impurity and impurities combined on the alloy corrodibility, the efficiency of PbO2 formation, the rate of the self‐discharge and the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and the oxygen evolution reaction (OER). The results show that individual impurity enhances the corrosion resistance but increases the anode corrosion and the self‐discharge rate. Impurities play opposite effects on hydrogen evolution reaction and oxygen evolution reaction either individually or combined. Concerning water loss problem, the harmful effect of individual impurity on increasing oxygen evolution reaction is compensated by their suppression of hydrogen evolution reaction. The impurities combined suppress effectively both hydrogen evolution reaction and oxygen evolution reaction relative to alloy without any impurity. Sb has the highest harmful effects on oxygen evolution reaction and the self‐discharge but it is the best in the suppression of hydrogen evolution reaction. The impurities combined relatively improve the general corrosion resistance, the anode corrosion resistance and the self‐discharge. The study supports higher tolerance levels of Cu, As and Sb in Pb‐Ca‐Sn grids, especially when present combined, than the recommended levels in the industry standards.

Evaluation of Tolerance of Some Elemental Impurities on Performance of Pb-Ca-Sn Positive Pole Grids of Lead-Acid Batteries

Evaluation of Tolerance of Some Elemental Impurities on Performance of Pb-Ca-Sn Positive Pole Grids of Lead-Acid Batteries

Evaluation of Tolerance of Some Elemental Impurities on Performance of Pb-Ca-Sn Positive Pole Grids of Lead-Acid Batteries

ABSTRACT: The electrochemical performance of positive pole grids of lead-acid batteries made of Pb-0.08%Ca-1.1%Sn alloys without and with 0.1 wt% of each of Cu, As or Sb and with 0.1 wt% of Cu, As andSb combined was investigated by electrochemical methods in 4.0 M H 2 SO 4 . The corrodibility ofalloys under open-circuit conditions and constant current charging of the positive pole, the positivepole gassing and the self-discharge of the charged positive pole were studied. All impurities (Cu,As, Sb) were found to decrease the corrosion resistance, R corr after 1/2 hour corrosion, but after 24hours an improvement in R corr was recorded for Sb containing alloy and the alloy with the threeimpurities combined. While an individual impurity was found to enhance oxygen evolution reac-tion, the impurities combined significantly inhibition this reaction and the related water loss prob-lem was improved. Impedance results were found helpful in identification of the species involvedin the charging/discharging and the self-discharge of the positive pole. Impurities individually orcombined were found to increase the self-discharge during polarization (33-68%), where Sb con-taining alloy was the worst and impurities combined alloy was the least. The corrosion of the pos-itive pole grid in the constant current charging was found to increase in the presence of impuritiesby 5-10%. Under open-circuit, the self-discharge of the charged positive grids was found to increasesignificantly (92-212%) in the presence of impurities, with Sb-containing alloy was the worst. Theimportant result of the study is that the harmful effect of the studied impurities combined was notadditive but sometimes lesser than any individual impurity. Keywords: Positive pole; Pb-Ca-Sn alloys; Lead-acid batteries; recycled Lead

Growth of tertiary dendritic arms during the transient directional solidification of hypoeutectic Pb–Sb alloys

Despite the importance of a complete characterization of dendritic patterns in castings, the availability of studies on the development of tertiary dendrite arms is scarce in the literature. In the present study, the tip cooling rate, local solidification time, primary and tertiary dendrite arm spacings have been determined in Pb–Sb alloys castings directionally solidified under unsteady-state heat flow conditions. The alloys compositions experimentally examined are widely used in the as-cast condition for the manufacture of positive and negative grids of lead-acid batteries. The initial growth of tertiary dendritic arms from the secondary branches was found to occur only for a Pb–3.5 wt% Sb alloy at cooling rates in the range 0.4–0.2 K/s, with no evidence of this spacing pattern for Pb–Sb alloys having lower solute content. Tertiary dendritic branches have been observed along the entire casting lengths for alloys of the Pb–Sb hypoeutectic range having compositions higher than 4.0 wt% Sb. It is shown that a power function experimental law with a characteristic −0.55 exponent is able to characterize the tertiary spacing evolution with the solidification cooling rate for alloys compositions ≥4.0 wt% Sb. The only exception was the Pb–3.5 wt% Sb alloy for which λ 3 exhibited significant lower values when compared with the experimental values obtained for the other Pb–Sb alloys for a same solidification cooling rate.

Effect of Phosphoric Acid on the Electronic and Diffusion Properties of the Anodic Passive Layer Formed on Pb-1.7%Sb Grid of Lead-acid Batteries

Potentiostatic oxidation of Pb-1.7%Sb alloy used in the manufacture of grids of lead-acid batteries over the potential range from -1.0V to 2.3V in 5M in the absence and the presence of 0.4M and the self-discharge characteristics of the oxide layer formed is studied by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Depending on the potential value, sharp variations in resistance and capacitance of the alloy are recorded during the oxidation and they can be used for identification of the various substances involved in passive layer. Addition of is found to deteriorate the insulating properties of the passive layer by the retardation of the formation of . completely inhibits the current and impedance fluctuations recorded in -free solutions in the potential range 0.5 V-1.7 V. These fluctuations are attributed to the occurrence of competitive redox processes that involve the formation of , , PbO and and the repeated formation and breakdown of the passive layer. Self-discharge experiments indicate that the amount of formed in the presence of is lesser than in the -free solutions. The start of transformation of into is greatly shortened. facilitates the diffusion process of soluble species through the passive layer ( and basic ) but impedes the diffusion process through .