Grid Insertion Research Articles

Electrocorticography for the Evaluation of Focus Resection

Electrocorticography(ECoG)with intracranial electrodes has a higher spatial resolution and higher sensitivity than conventional electroencephagrahy. Chronic VIDEO-ECoG with subdural grid electrodes has been used to determine the resection border of epileptic focus, and to evaluate cortical function prior to resective surgery. Recording multiple seizures is necessary to determine whether they are the same as habitual seizures and whether they are reproducible, to allow subsequent identification of the seizure onset zone. It is also necessary to understand the ictal ECoG patterns of various seizure onsets. Recent advances in engineering technology have made wideband(0.01 Hz-600Hz)analysis possible. The resection of the area with the ictal DC shift and high frequency oscillation is reported to improve surgical outcome. Although the procedure of subdural grid insertion is technically easy, high rates of complications, such as infections and bleeding, have been reported. Intraoperative acute ECoG was used to validate the extent of resection area. Overall, intraoperative ECoG is greatly affected by anesthetics, and the interictal epileptic discharge should be evaluated carefully.

Standardized reporting of complications of epilepsy surgery and invasive monitoring: A single-center retrospective study

ObjectiveMonitoring adverse effects related to epilepsy surgery is essential for quality control and for counseling patients prior to the procedure. The aim of this study was to analyze the rates of complications related to epilepsy surgery following invasive monitoring and to classify them according to the recently proposed protocol by the E-pilepsy consortium. MethodsThis is a retrospective study of collected data extracted from our routinely updated epilepsy surgery database which consisted of 173 surgical procedures: 89 surgeries for insertion of subdural grids, strips, and/or depth electrodes, and 84 resective surgeries. According to the protocol, complications were defined as unexpected postoperative adverse events and were stratified into transient (lasting less than 6 months) and permanent deficits (lasting 6 months or longer). In addition, we reported patients with postoperative psychiatric disturbances and calculated the rates of transient and permanent postoperative sequelae which were defined as expected postoperative deficits deemed inherent to the surgical procedure. ResultsSix potentially life-threatening complications requiring acceleration of the planned resective surgery occurred during invasive monitoring. Following resective surgery, 12 transient sequelae (8 motor deficits, three language deficits, and one transient dyscalculia) and 10 permanent sequelae (5 mild memory disturbances, four visual field cuts, and one contralateral dysesthesia) occurred. In addition, 7 patients experienced transient motor complications. Four permanent postoperative neurological complications (4.8%) occurred: motor deficits in three patients and a partial peripheral facial palsy in one. Finally, five patients developed de novo psychiatric disturbances (transient in four and permanent in one). ConclusionsThis is the first study to classify complications of epilepsy surgery according to the E-pilepsy consortium protocol. Our findings demonstrate that epilepsy surgery following invasive monitoring is safe and associated with low morbidity when performed in specialized centers. Monitoring these complications according to a unified definition and using a multidimensional protocol will allow for a direct comparison across epilepsy surgery centers, will provide the epileptologists and surgeons with objective percentages to share with their patients and will help in identifying risk factors and improving the safety of epilepsy surgery.

A Review on the Development of Metal Grids for the Upscaling of Perovskite Solar Cells and Modules

Lab‐scale perovskite solar cells have reached efficiencies as high as the best monocrystalline silicon cells, with expectations that their manufacturing costs could be lower than those of currently commercialized cells. As a result, efforts are now directed to the production of these cells. In this sense, the use of frontal metal grids in large‐area perovskite cells and parallel‐connected modules is imperative due to the low conductivity of the transparent conductive substrate usually employed in these devices. For the insertion of grids, a trade‐off between reduced resistive losses and the increase in shadowed area must be achieved. Assessment of grid parameters is of utmost importance for the assembly of viable large‐scale cells and modules. Furthermore, a direct transfer from grid parameters previously specified for other photovoltaic technologies might not be the best option for perovskite cells. Nonetheless, investigations of grids specifically designed for these cells are still scarce in the literature. Here, grid design, both in terms of metal composition and geometric factors, is discussed, including their development for tandem cells and flexible devices. To provide further insights into the maturity level of this technology, a patent analysis regarding grid designs for perovskite modules is also presented in this review.

An adaptive and rapid 3D Delaunay triangulation for randomly distributed point cloud data

Incremental algorithms are among the most popular approaches for Delaunay triangulation, and the point insertion sequence has a substantial impact on the amount of work needed to construct Delaunay triangulations in incremental algorithm triangulation. In this paper, 2D adaptive Hilbert curve insertion, including the method of dividing 3D multi-grids and adjusting the 3D adaptive Hilbert curve to avoid the “jump” phenomenon, is extended to 3D Delaunay triangulation. In addition, on the basis of adaptive Hilbert curve insertion, we continue to optimize the addition of control points by selecting control points in every order and every grid level. As a result, the number of conflicting elongated tetrahedra that have to be created and deleted multiple times and the number of search steps for positioning inserted points can both be reduced. Lastly, a new comparison method is used in the point location process to solve the precision problem in 3D Delaunay triangulation. As shown by detailed experiments and analysis, compared with previous adaptive Hilbert curve insertion, CGAL, regular grid insertion, multi-grid insertion and random insertion, the proposed 3D Delaunay triangulation is the most efficient for both artificial and real surface sampling point sets.

Linear oblique craniectomy: A novel method of minimally invasive subdural grid insertion

Background: Many countries rely upon subdural grid electroencephalography in the planning of epilepsy surgeries. However, craniotomy for subdural grid implantation is known to result in a variety of complications and requires diligence from the surgical team. We describe a minimally invasive method of subdural grid insertion, termed the linear oblique craniectomy, designed to mitigate complications and increase ease of subdural grid insertion. Objective: To demonstrate feasibility of minimally invasive subdural grid insertion utilizing skull anatomy. Methods: Three fresh frozen and embalmed human cadavers underwent surface landmarking and craniectomy to introduce a 4 × 5 cm2 subdural grid over the Sylvian fissure. Anteroposterior lens-shaped craniectomy measured 5 cm in length with 1 cm maximal width. The dura mater was longitudinally incised, and subdural grids were introduced over the Sylvian fissure. Results: The total area of the craniectomy created by the linear oblique approach consists of only approximately 20% of the total area removed by the traditional approach to access the Sylvian fissure for mesial temporal epilepsy monitoring/preoperative planning. The locations of the grids were evaluated by MRI and computed tomography scans postoperatively to ensure accurate alignment with the Sylvian fissure. Conclusion: In this cadaveric study, we demonstrate the linear oblique craniectomy procedure that provides an alternative approach to subdural grid implantation with significantly decreased invasiveness. This surgical approach has the potential of reducing complication rates of subdural grid insertion for surface monitoring of the brain activity and/or neuromachine interface analysis and is associated with significant reduction of surgical time.

An RF ion source model for H-production

A 1D model of an RF driven ion source based on ionisation by thermal electrons is presented. The RF source differs from traditional filament and arc ion sources because there are no primary electrons present, and is simply composed of an antenna region (driver) and a main plasma discharge region. However the model does still make use of the classical plasma transport equations for particle energy and flow, as used previously in DC source models where they have worked well. The model currently uses the geometry and other source parameters of the Small Negative Ion Facility (SNIF) ion source at CCFE and only considers the hydrogen ion species, but may be easily adapted to model other RF sources. The model provides a detailed description of the plasma parameters along the source axis, i.e. plasma temperature, density and potential, as well as current densities and species fluxes, but does not consider the RF matching unit. The inputs to the model are the source geometry, RF power, the magnetic filter field, the source gas pressure and the plasma grid insert bias. Results from the model are presented and where possible compared to existing experimental data from SNIF, with varying RF power, source pressure and insert bias.

A case study of multi-structure turbulence: Uniformly sheared flow distorted by a grid

The fine and large–scale structures of spatially developing uniformly sheared flow (USF) and USF distorted by a square–mesh grid were examined experimentally using one– and two–point, two–component hot–wire anemometry. In agreement with previous findings, it was confirmed that USF has a far downstream region, where the dissipation parameter Cε is approximately constant, and an intermediate region, where it scales with the local turbulent Reynolds number as Cɛ∝Reλ−0.6. The insertion of a grid across the USF resulted in the creation of multi-structure turbulence (a flow in which at least two kinds of dominant eddies exist and contribute significantly to the local averages at the energy-containing level) and a permanent reduction of the kinetic energy and the integral length scales of the turbulence. Near the grid the dissipation parameter scaled as Cɛ∝Reλ−1, as in decaying grid turbulence, despite the opposite evolution rates of Reλ in the two flows. The turbulence fine structure within this multi–structure region was unaffected significantly by the grid, whereas the large–scale anisotropy was markedly changed. Second–order structure functions, normalised by Kolmogorov scales, collapsed in the viscous sub–range , whereas within the inertial sub–range the effects of grid insertion were measurable.

Trans-falcine and contralateral sub-frontal electrode placement in pediatric epilepsy surgery: technical note.

Phase II monitoring with intracranial electroencephalography (ICEEG) occasionally requires bilateral placement of subdural (SD) strips, grids, and/or depth electrodes. While phase I monitoring often demonstrates a preponderance of unilateral findings, individual studies (video EEG, single photon emission computed tomography [SPECT], and positron emission tomography [PET]) can suggest or fail to exclude a contralateral epileptogenic onset zone. This study describes previously unreported techniques of trans-falcine and sub-frontal insertion of contralateral SD grids and depth electrodes for phase II monitoring in pediatric epilepsy surgery patients when concern about bilateral abnormalities has been elicited during phase I monitoring. Pediatric patients with medically refractory epilepsy undergoing stage I surgery for phase II monitoring involving sub-frontal and/or trans-falcine insertion of SD grids and/or depth electrodes at the senior author's institution were retrospectively reviewed. Intra-operative technical details of sub-frontal and trans-falcine approaches were studied, while intra-operative complications or events were noted. Operative techniques included gentle subfrontal retraction and elevation of the olfactory tracts (while preserving the relationship between the olfactory bulb and cribriform plate) to insert SD grids across the midline for coverage of the contralateral orbito-frontal regions. Trans-falcine approaches involved accessing the inter-hemispheric space, bipolar cauterization of the anterior falx cerebri below the superior sagittal sinus, and sharp dissection using a blunt elevator and small blade scalpel. The falcine window allowed contralateral SD strip, grid, and depth electrodes to be inserted for coverage of the contralateral frontal regions. The study cohort included seven patients undergoing sub-frontal and/or trans-falcine insertion of contralateral SD strip, grid, and/or depth electrodes from February 2012 through June 2015. Five patients (71%) experienced no intra-operative events related to contralateral ICEEG electrode insertion. Intra-operative events of frontal territory venous engorgement (1/7, 14%) due to sacrifice of anterior bridging veins draining into the SSS and avulsion of a contralateral bridging vein (1/7, 14%), probably due to prior anterior corpus callosotomy, each occurred in one patient. There were no intra-operative or peri-operative complications in any of the patients studied. Two patients required additional surgery for supplemental SD strip and/or depth electrodes via burr hole craniectomy to enhance phase II monitoring. All patients proceeded to stage II surgery for resection of ipsilateral epileptogenic onset zones without adverse events. Trans-falcine and sub-frontal insertion of contralateral SD strip, grid, and depth electrodes are previously unreported techniques for achieving bilateral frontal coverage in phase II monitoring in pediatric epilepsy surgery. This technique obviates the need for contralateral craniotomy and parenchymal exposure with limited, remediable risks. Larger case series using the method described herein are now necessary.

Flow field features of fractal impinging jets at short nozzle to plate distances

An experimental analysis of the flow field generated by an impinging jet equipped with a fractal grid insert located at the nozzle exit is carried out by means of Tomographic Particle Image Velocimetry. The Reynolds number based on the nozzle exit section diameter d is set to 15,000. The presence of the grid leads to a non uniform curvature of the jet shear layer. As a consequence, azimuthal instabilities are triggered in proximity of the nozzle exit section, causing the production of streamwise vortices. Furthermore, the organization of the coherent structures in proximity of the impinged wall is discussed and related to the convective heat transfer distribution. Owing to the presence of counter rotating wall vortices along the diagonals of the on-plate imprint of the fractal grid, a region of minimum in the scalar transfer map can be detected. In addition to that, similarly to the well known vortex rings that characterize the case of round jet without turbulence promoter, the presence of azimuthally coherent structures that might be generated by Kelvin–Helmholtz instability of the jet shear layer is presented and discussed.

Reduced complications from intracranial grid insertion by using a small grid size and a precise protocol during monitoring

A study of the risk factors associated with complications during intracranial EEG monitoring led to a change in protocol for monitoring and implantation at our centres. We conducted a study to identify any reduction in complications following the changed protocols involving the use of smaller subdural electrode arrays, continuous ICP monitoring, use of a central line, and intake of prophylactic antibiotics and dexamethasone. We prospectively collected data on patient outcomes between 2005 and 2012 (group B) compared with patients between 1988 and 2004 (group A) before the protocol changes. Seventy-one patients in group A and 58 patients in group B underwent intracranial electrode implantation. Complications directly related to grids occurred in 25 % of group A vs. 8.6 % in group B (p < 0.05) and those indirectly related to grids were 11.2 % in group A vs. none in group B. The rate of transient complications requiring no treatment was 12.5 % in group A versus 1.7 % in group B. The rate of transient complications requiring treatment was 10 % in group A and 6.9 % in group B. There were two deaths in group A. The infection rate was higher in group B than group A (5.2 % vs. 2.8 %; p = 0.90). Since 2008 there have been no infective complications. Complications directly related to intracranial EEG monitoring were significantly reduced using the revised protocol (p < 0.05). Regression analysis identifying only the size of the grids (≤4 × 8 grid arrays) implanted was an independent predictor of more complications in group A (P < 0.05). Complication rates following intracranial implantation decreased following the use of a small grid size and adherence to a stringent protocol.

Rapid Delaunay triangulation for randomly distributed point cloud data using adaptive Hilbert curve

Given the enormous scale and diverse distribution of 2D point cloud data, an adaptive Hilbert curve insertion algorithm which has quasi-linear time complexity is proposed to improve the efficiency of Delaunay triangulation. First of all, a large number of conflicting elongated triangles, which have been created and deleted many times, can be reduced by adopting Hilbert curve traversing multi-grids. In addition, searching steps for point location can be reduced by adjusting Hilbert curve׳s opening direction in adjacent grids to avoid the “jumping” phenomenon. Lastly, the number of conflicting elongated triangles can be further decreased by adding control points during traversing grids. The experimental results show that the efficiency of Delaunay triangulation by the adaptive Hilbert curve insertion algorithm can be improved significantly for both uniformly and non-uniformly distributed point cloud data, compared with CGAL, regular grid insertion and multi-grid insertion algorithms.

Renewable energy management through microgrid central controller design: An approach to integrate solar, wind and biomass with battery

Abstract In this study, an isolated microgrid comprising of renewable energy (RE) sources like wind, solar, biogas and battery is considered. Provision of utility grid insertion is also given if total microgrid sources falls short of supplying the total load. To establish an efficient energy management strategy, a central controller takes the decision based on the status of the loads and sources. The status is obtained with the assistance of multi-agent concept (treating each source and load as an agent). The data acquisition system of these renewable sources and loads consists of multiple sensors interconnected through Low Power Radio over one of many GPRS communication. The Microgrid Central Controller (MGCC) would use an embedded energy management algorithm to take decisions, which are then transmitted to the controllable RE systems to manage the utilization of their power outputs as per the load-supply power balance. A control strategy is adopted to regulate the power output from the battery in case of supply shortage, which results in a floating battery scheme in steady state.

SU‐E‐T‐315: Dosimetric Effects of Couch Top Shift On VMAT Delivery in Absence of Indexing

Purpose:To investigate dosimetric effects of couch top shift for volumetric‐modulated arc therapy (VMAT) in absence of indexing of immobilization devices.Methods:A total of twelve VMAT treatment plans were selected from three regions (lung, abdomen, and pelvis) to account for the variation of the patient position relative to the couch top. The treatment plans were generated using the Varian Eclipse system. A pinpoint ionization chamber (PTW TN31014) was placed at the center of 16‐cm solid water phantom and the dose was delivered using the Varian TrueBeam STx with BrainLAB ExacTrac couch top. To simulate the day‐to‐day variation of the patient position relative to couch top, the couch top was laterally shifted up to 50 mm, with an increment of 5 mm from 0 to 20 mm; and of 10 mm afterwards, and the phantom was moved back to 0 cm shift for measurement. The dose was also delivered using a Varian tennis racket grid insert at 0 cm shift to simulate the absence of couch top. The treatment plans were delivered with 6, 10, and 15 MV photons using the same leaf sequencing to investigate the energy dependence of couch top shift. The dose difference was normalized to 0 cm shift for the regular couch top for comparison.Results:The percent difference of dose was found to increase with lateral shift for all energies; however, the average differences were close to 0% and the maximum difference was within 1% along the lateral shifts. The differences with the absence of couch top were 2.2±0.5% (6MV), 1.7±0.3% (10MV), and 1.6±0.2% (15MV), respectively.Conclusion:The inclusion of couch top is recommended in treatment planning to minimize the dosimetric uncertainty between calculated and delivered dose even in absence of indexing of immobilization devices in VMAT delivery.

Measuring the mutual effects between a CZT detector and MRI for the development of a simultaneous MBI/MRI insert.

While mammography is the gold standard for breast cancer screening, it suffers from poor sensitivity in women with dense breast tissue. Both breast MRI and molecular breast imaging (MBI) have been used as secondary imaging techniques. However, breast MRI suffers from low specificity and low sensitivity in MBI. A CZT based detector system has been developed with the goal of simultaneous MBI/MRI imaging to address the shortcomings of each modality. The performance of each modality needs to be addressed separately and together. The CZT system is comprised of four Redlen CZT modules tiled in a 2x2 array. Each module consists of 256 pixels and feature a builtin on-board ASIC and FPGA. A custom digital readout circuit board was designed to interface the four modules with a microcontroller to a PC. MR images were acquired with a 3T GE Discovery MR750 and Hologic breast coils. A gradient echo imaging sequence was used for all image acquisitions. A tissue mimicking phantom with a plastic grid insert (1 cm spacing) was used to evaluate geometric accuracy with the CZT detectors in the MRI bore. The average distance between the grid markers was 1A}0.2cm indicating negligible geometric distortion. Field maps were generated with a uniform phantom to quantify the effect on magnetic field homogeneity. Early results indicate a significant distortion (~10ppm) in the magnetic field closest to the coil. Further analysis of the MR images will determine the extent of image quality degradation. A flood map of Tc-99m was acquired to evaluate and implement an energy correction map and a uniformity map. In the absence of a magnetic field, the mean energy resolution at 140keV was 6.3%. After fully characterizing the uniformity, geometric accuracy and sensitivity, the same metrics will be evaluated in the MRI bore.

Invasive EEG in refractory epilepsy: Insertion of subdural grids through linear craniectomy reduces complications and remains effective

ObjectiveTo evaluate our technique of implanting subdural grids by linear craniectomy under computer-assisted navigation for invasive electroencephalography in medically refractory epilepsy. Material and methodWe report results from our first 38 consecutive patients with medically refractory epilepsy who underwent subdural grids implantation by linear craniectomy. For each case, a preoperative MRI was performed for navigation followed by a postoperative MRI for localization control of the intracranial electrode contacts. A linear skin incision, adapted to the depth and type of subdural electrode (strip or grid) and compatible with possible subsequent therapeutic surgery, was carried out. One or two linear craniectomies (maximal length 6cm, width 1cm) were then drilled with a bevel. The dura mater was incised under microscopic guidance to avoid opening the arachnoid. The required subdural electrodes were then slipped subdurally through each linear craniectomy (letter-box technique). ResultsForty-one invasive electroencephalographies were performed with 28 (68%) bilateral. For all invasive electroencephalographies, at least one subdural grid was implanted. Sixty-one subdural grids were implanted in total, 52 with 20 contacts and nine with 32 contacts. No cerebrospinal fluid leakage, no infection, no neurological deficit and no permanent complications were observed. Three subdural grids (5%) were not positioned exactly as planned but this had no consequence for the invasive electroencephalography analysis. ConclusionThe implantation of 61 consecutive subdural grids for invasive electroencephalography through linear craniectomies was associated with no transient or permanent complications in this population. This letter-box technique appears to be practical and safe without limiting explorative efficacy.

3D Delaunay triangulation of non-uniform point distributions

In view of the simplicity and the linearity of regular grid insertion, a multi-grid insertion scheme is proposed for the three-dimensional Delaunay triangulation of non-uniform point distributions by recursive application of the regular grid insertion to an arbitrary subset of the original point set. The fundamentals and difficulties of three-dimensional Delaunay triangulation of highly non-uniformly distributed points by the insertion method are reviewed. Current strategies and methods of point insertions for non-uniformly distributed spatial points are discussed. An enhanced kd-tree insertion algorithm with a specified number of points in a cell and its natural sequence derived from a sandwich insertion scheme is also presented.The regular grid insertion, the enhanced kd-tree insertion and the multi-grid insertion have been rigorously studied with benchmark non-uniform distributions of 0.4–20 million points. It is found that the kd-tree insertion is more efficient in locating the base tetrahedron, but it is also more sensitive to the triangulation of non-uniform point distributions with a large amount of conflicting elongated tetrahedra. Including the grid construction time, multi-grid insertion is the most stable and efficient for all the uniform and non-uniform point distributions tested.

Heat transfer enhancement of impinging jets with fractal-generated turbulence

A new passive method for the heat transfer enhancement of circular impinging jets is proposed and tested. The method is based on enhancing the mainstream turbulence of impinging jets using square fractal grids, i.e. a grid with a square pattern repeated at increasingly smaller scales. Fractal grids can generate much higher turbulence intensity than regular grids under the same inflow conditions and with similar blockage ratio, at the expense of a slightly larger pressure drop. An experimental investigation on the heat transfer enhancement achieved by impinging jets with fractal turbulence promoters is carried out. The heated-thin foil technique is implemented to measure the spatial distribution of the Nusselt number on the target plate. The heat transfer rates of impinging jets with a regular grid and a fractal grid insert are compared to that of a jet without any turbulator under the same condition of power input. A parametric study on the effect of the Reynolds number, the nozzle-to-plate distance and the position of the insert within the nozzle is carried out. The results show that a fractal turbulence promoter can provide a significant heat transfer enhancement for relatively small nozzle-to-plate separation (for a distance equal to 2 diameters an increase of 63% at the stagnation point, and 25% if averaged over an area of radius equal to 1 nozzle diameter, are respectively found with respect to the circular jet, against 9% and 6% for the regular grid in the same conditions of power input).

Tissue Cutting Mechanics and Applications for Needle Core Biopsy and Guidance

Needle is one of the most common features in medical devices. A better understanding of needle tip geometry can lead to the creation of an optimized needle tip geometry which would greatly benefit the procedure of biopsy or insertion guidance. This study reviews the recent researches on needle cutting edge with high inclination angle, and applications in needle core biopsy and insertion guidance. The mathematical models of the inclination and rake angles for the needle with lancet point and enhanced cutting edge needles are developed. To improve the biopsy length, a novel approach to use the enhanced cutting edge needle to acquire the tissue sample is studied and the concept is experimentally validated. To reduce needle deflection and increase insertion accuracy, the effects of grid constraints, needle material, and insertion speed are analyzed. The knowledge gained from this study can be used to better understand needle tissue cutting mechanics and integrate these technologies for more efficient needle biopsy and accurate insertion guidance procedures.

Delaunay triangulation of non-uniform point distributions by means of multi-grid insertion

In the light of the simplicity and the linearity of regular grid insertion, a multi-grid insertion scheme is proposed for the Delaunay triangulation of uniform and non-uniform point distributions by recursive application of the regular grid insertion to an arbitrary subset of the original point set. The fundamentals and difficulties of Delaunay triangulation of highly non-uniformly distributed points by the insertion method are discussed. Current strategies and methods of point insertions for non-uniformly distributed points are reviewed. An enhanced kd-tree insertion scheme with specified number of points in a cell and its natural sequence of insertion are presented.The regular grid insertion, the enhanced kd-tree insertion and the multi-grid insertion have been thoroughly tested with benchmark non-uniform distributions of 1–100million points. It is found that the kd-tree insertion is very sensitive to the triangulation of non-uniform point distributions with a large amount of conflicting elongated triangles. Multi-grid insertion is the most stable and efficient for all the uniform and non-uniform point distributions tested.

An automated pipeline to screen membrane protein 2D crystallization

Electron crystallography relies on electron cryomicroscopy of two-dimensional (2D) crystals and is particularly well suited for studying the structure of membrane proteins in their native lipid bilayer environment. To obtain 2D crystals from purified membrane proteins, the detergent in a protein-lipid-detergent ternary mixture must be removed, generally by dialysis, under conditions favoring reconstitution into proteoliposomes and formation of well-ordered lattices. To identify these conditions a wide range of parameters such as pH, lipid composition, lipid-to-protein ratio, ionic strength and ligands must be screened in a procedure involving four steps: crystallization, specimen preparation for electron microscopy, image acquisition, and evaluation. Traditionally, these steps have been carried out manually and, as a result, the scope of 2D crystallization trials has been limited. We have therefore developed an automated pipeline to screen the formation of 2D crystals. We employed a 96-well dialysis block for reconstitution of the target protein over a wide range of conditions designed to promote crystallization. A 96-position magnetic platform and a liquid handling robot were used to prepare negatively stained specimens in parallel. Robotic grid insertion into the electron microscope and computerized image acquisition ensures rapid evaluation of the crystallization screen. To date, 38 2D crystallization screens have been conducted for 15 different membrane proteins, totaling over 3000 individual crystallization experiments. Three of these proteins have yielded diffracting 2D crystals. Our automated pipeline outperforms traditional 2D crystallization methods in terms of throughput and reproducibility.