Grenache Noir Research Articles

Orographic Effects on Berry Morphology and Chemical Composition of Carignan and Grenache Noir Grapes

Orographic Effects on Berry Morphology and Chemical Composition of Carignan and Grenache Noir Grapes

Mechanical tests and definition of new indexes of grape berry firmness. Evolution of berry skin hardness during alcoholic fermentation

The mechanical strength or firmness of a fruit is considered an important parameter to characterise its state of ripeness or conservation, as well as other parameters such as sugar level or color. The mechanical hardness of grapes influences the integrity and sanitary quality of the harvest. In this study, the mechanical characteristics of grapevine berries were studied at harvest time in order to determine their rheological properties (firmness and hardness of the berry skin) during alcoholic fermentation. Special indexes were defined measuring the energy needed to crush the berries to 50 % of their initial diameter, and applied successively to two different varieties. The entire berry firmness and the skin hardness were both different. Mechanical indexes linked to grape firmness were defined. Using these indexes, a significant effect on the firmness behavior due to variety was recorded: the skin of 'Grenache Noir' was found firmer and harder than 'Carignan Noir'. Furthermore, during the alcoholic fermentation, no change in skin hardness was observed for both varieties, despite changes in the composition of the must. These results give new information on mechanical properties of berries and could be used as an aid in the winemaking process. Indeed, they would probably help the winemaker to better choose the type of fermentation and maceration adapted to his grapes according to the type of wine he wishes to produce.

Grape Production Critical Review in the World

Grape Production Critical Review in the World

Comparative Anatomy and Morphology of the Leaves of Grenache Noir and Syrah Grapevine Cultivars

Grenache Noir and Syrah are two of the grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) cultivars used to a great extent worldwide. They have very different leaf morphologies from an ampelographic (botanical) point of view. This might also be related to differences in the anatomy and micro-morphology of their leaves. The goal of the present work was to compare these cultivars’ leaf anatomy and morphology. Adult leaves from both cultivars were characterised using a range of microscopy techniques. Grenache Noir had a significantly smaller leaf surface area, but a significantly thicker leaf blade, than Syrah. It also had significantly larger stomata and a larger stomatal index than Syrah. The distribution of mesophyll tissues was similar in both cultivars, but the upper epidermis was significantly thicker in Grenache Noir, and the palisade parenchyma cells were longer in Syrah. The mesophyll tissues of both cultivars contained abundant idioblasts carrying crystals of calcium oxalate and mucilage. This work reveals quantitative and qualitative differences in the anatomy and morphology of mature Grenache Noir and Syrah leaves. Further work is needed to determine how these anatomical and morphological differences may be connected with different responses at the functional level.

Classification of winegrape cultivars in Chile and France according to their susceptibility toBotrytis cinerearelated to fruit maturity

Background and Aims The susceptibility of winegrape cultivars to Botrytis cinerea is a debated topic, and the available classifications are based on professional experience rather than on experimental data. The main aim of this study was to compare and classify the susceptibility of several winegrape cultivars to B. cinerea and its relation to fruit maturity under two contrasting climatic and cropping conditions. Methods and Results Between 2011 and 2015, three field trials were undertaken in Chile and France, including 13 common cultivars. Both the incidence and severity of the disease were evaluated at harvest, and indices of susceptibility and maturity were calculated on a per site basis. The significant difference in incidence and severity observed among cultivars led to a similar susceptibility classification in both countries. Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Grenache Noir and Petit Verdot were the most resistant cultivars, whereas Gewürztraminer and Sauvignon Blanc were the most susceptible. Moreover, an exponential and positive relationship was established between indexes of susceptibility and maturity. Conclusions The classification of cultivars according to the susceptibility to B. cinerea was similar in both countries, despite the contrasting climatic conditions and cropping practices. Significance of the Study These findings might be of interest for choosing cultivars that are more resistant to B. cinerea to reduce the number of fungicide applications.

Leaf:Fruit Ratio and Vine Water Status Effects on Grenache Noir (Vitis vinifera L.) Berry Composition: Water, Sugar, Organic Acids and Cations

Seasonal variation in the water, sugar, organic acid and cation contents of developing grape berries (Vitis vinifera L. ‘Grenache noir’) under different levels of water supply (with and without deficit irrigation) and leaf:fruit ratios (18, 10 and five leaves per primary shoot, with one bunch per shoot), were investigated over two successive years in Mediterranean conditions (South of France). Fourteen shoots per vine were left for each leaf:fruit ratio level, and each vine was considered as having homogeneous primary shoots. The growth rate of the berries was increased with irrigation. Total dry matter content of the berry was not affected by leaf:fruit ratios, but the sugar loading decreased during berry development with a lower leaf:fruit ratio (five leaves per bunch). Treatments had little effect on organic acid contents and pH. Berry cation accumulation depended on vine water status and not on the total leaf area of the vine. Under irrigated conditions, calcium continued to accumulate in the berries after veraison. This confirms a partial functioning of the berry xylem during the post-veraison period. The seasonal variation in berry composition was less dependent on the leaf:fruit ratio than on the water status of the vine (mainly cations and sugar). This study provides evidence for the importance of plant water status effects on berry composition, irrespective of the leaf:fruit ratio. Vine water status is a major regulating factor for source-sink relationships.

Monitoring selected monomeric polyphenol composition in pre- and post-fermentation products of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Airén and cv. Grenache noir

A mass balance approach was used quantify select polyphenols in pre- and post-fermentation products resulting from the fermentation of Vitis vinifera cv. Grenache noir and Airén. For Grenache noir, the overall mass recovery was 102.7%. The main products were wine (78.3%), pomace (8.5%), lees (4.2%), and rachises (3.4%). Pomace was a rich source of all identified polyphenols. Lees sorbed significant amounts of gallic acid, catechin, epicatechin, malvidin-3-O-glucoside, malvidin-3-acetylglucoside, quercetin-3-O-glucoside, and quercetin. An approximately 200% increase in the total amount of gallic acid occurred during fermentation. For the Airén grapes, the overall mass recovery was >90%. The pomace, rachises, juice solids after settling, and lees constituted ∼50% of the total mass of products obtained; pomace alone accounted for 40% of the total product mass. Over 90% of the total amount of gallic acid, catechin and epicatechin and ∼50% of the quercetin-3-O-glucoside were found in the pomace.

Effects of Vine Water Status on Dimethyl Sulfur Potential, Ammonium, and Amino Acid Contents in Grenache Noir Grapes (Vitis vinifera)

We studied the effect of vine water status on the dimethyl sulfur potential (DMSP), ammonium, and amino acid contents of the berry during the maturation of Grenache Noir grapes. Water deficit increased the accumulation of amino acids in berries and favored yeast assimilable amino nitrogen. Similarly, ammonium content was higher in berries from vines subjected to moderate water deficit. DMSP content followed the same trend as yeast assimilable amino acid content, with higher concentrations observed in the berries of vines subjected to water deficit. The high DMSP and yeast assimilable nitrogen contents of musts from vines subjected to water deficit resulted in a better preservation of DMSP during winemaking. The wines produced from these musts had a higher DMSP level and would therefore probably have a higher aroma shelf life, because the DMSP determines the rate of release of dimethyl sulfur during wine storage, and this compound enhances fruity notes.

Anthocyanins composition and extraction from Grenache noir (<em>Vitis vinifera</em> L.) vine leaf using an experimental design II- by ethanol or sulfur dioxide in acidified water

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Aim</strong>: Anthocyanins are water soluble pigments located in grape skin as well as in vine leaves. The aim of this work was to identify, and determine the anthocyanin composition in Grenache noir (<em>Vitis vinifera</em>) leaves as well as to estimate the optimum conditions leading to the highest anthocyanin extraction yield.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Methods and results</strong>: Five anthocyanins were identified and quantified in Grenache noir leaves by HPLC-DAD-MS. Among these anthocyanins, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and peonidin-3-O-glucoside were the main anthocyanins, representing 43 and 38 %, respectively, while delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, petunidin-3-O-glucoside and malvidin-3-Oglucoside accounted for only 6, 5 and 8 %, respectively. To estimate the highest anthocyanin extraction yield, a multi-factorial design experiment was used to build a mathematical model. The extraction conditions tested were time, temperature and solvent composition (i. e., ethanol or SO<sub>2</sub> level in acidified water).</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Conclusion</strong>: Only the five mono-glucoside anthocyanins usually detected in grapes have been detected, identified and quantified in Grenache noir leaves. The optimum extraction conditions of these anthocyanins were obtained for acidified hydro-alcoholic solution (i. e., pH 2, 3 h, temperature ranging between 36.5 and 40 °C and an ethanol concentration ranging between 36.8 and 40 %) and for acidified water with SO<sub>2</sub> (i. e., pH 2, between 5.8 and 6 h, a temperature ranging between 38.6 and 40 °C and a concentration of 500 ppm of SO<sub>2</sub>).</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Significance and impact of the study</strong>: Five mono-glucoside anthocyanins were identified and quantified in Grenache noir leaves. The optimum extraction conditions for of these anthocyanins were estimated in acidified hydroalcoholic solution and in acidified water with SO<sub>2</sub>. These extraction procedures will allow further investigation of the potential use of these anthocyanins as natural pigment for food as well as for the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry.</p>

Anthocyanin composition and extraction from Grenache noir (<em>Vitis vinifera</em> L.) vine leaf using an experimental design. I - By ethanol or sulfur dioxide

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Aim</strong>: Anthocyanins are water soluble pigments mainly located in grape skin; however, these phenolic compounds are also located in vine leaves. The aim of this work was to identify, quantify and determine for the first time the anthocyanin composition in Grenache noir (<em>Vitis vinifera</em>) leaves.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Methods and results</strong>: Five anthocyanins were identified and quantified in Grenache noir leaves by HPLC-UV-MS. Of these, cyanidin-3-<em>O</em>-glucoside and peonidin-3-<em>O</em>-glucoside were the main anthocyanins and represented 44 and 37%, respectively, while delphinidin-3-<em>O</em>-glucoside, petunidin-3-<em>O</em>-glucoside and malvidin-3-<em>O</em>-glucoside accounted for only 6, 5 and 8%, respectively. A multi-factorial design experiment was used to build a mathematical model to estimate the best extraction condition (highest anthocyanin extraction yield from leaf extract) for both SO<sub>2</sub> and ethanol in the aqueous extraction solvent. For SO<sub>2</sub>, the optimal extraction parameters were an extraction time ranging between 5.77 and 6 h, a temperature ranging between 20 and 23.7°C and a concentration of 500 ppm of SO<sub>2</sub> in the aqueous extraction solvent. Using the hydro-alcoholic extraction solvent, the optimal extraction parameters were an extraction time ranging between 3 and 4.37 h, a temperature set at 20°C and an ethanol concentration in the extraction solvent ranging between 32 and 40%.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Conclusion</strong>: Only the five mono-glucoside anthocyanins usually detected in grapes have been detected, indentified and quantified in Grenache noir leaves by HPLC-UV-MS. Using a multi-factorial design experiment the optimum conditions for the extraction of these anthocyanins were obtained in hydro-alcoholic solution (i.e., extraction time ranging between 3 and 4.37 h, a temperature set at 20°C and an ethanol concentration ranging between 32 and 40%) and in water with SO<sub>2</sub> (i.e., extraction time ranging between 5.77 and 6 h, a temperature ranging between 20 and 23.7°C and a concentration of 500 ppm of SO<sub>2</sub> in water).</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Significance and impact of the study</strong>: Five anthocyanins were detected, identified and quantified in Grenache noir leaves by HPLC-UV-MS and the main anthocyanin were with cyanidin-3-<em>O</em>-glucoside and peonidin-3-<em>O</em>-glucoside. The</p>

Grapevine Genotype Susceptibility toXylella fastidiosadoes not Predict Vector Transmission Success

For vector-borne diseases, interactions between vector, host, and pathogen can influence patterns of disease spread. In particular, previous studies suggest that host genotype may influence disease dynamics because of differences in susceptibility to the pathogen and, therefore, subsequent vector transmission efficiency from these plants. We tested this hypothesis by using the pathogenic bacterium Xylella fastidiosa, the etiological agent of Pierce's disease in grapevines, and its leafhopper vector Homalodisca vitripennis (Germar). Pathogen infection level and transmission efficiency among several widely cultivated red and white wine, table, and raisin grape cultivars, were compared with the expectation that vector transmission rate would differ among cultivars, because of underlying differences in susceptibility to infection. The 14 grapevine genotypes evaluated showed significant differences among cultivars in the populations of X. fastidiosa that developed in petioles. 'Flame seedless' hosted the highest bacterial populations, between 1.81 and 2.05 times higher than the least susceptible 'Merlot', 'Crimson seedless', 'Grenache Noir', and 'Rubired'. Although the transmission rate of X. fastidiosa by H. vitripennis varied substantially (zero to 33%), it was not significantly different among cultivars. These results suggest that either the relationship between vine infection level and transmission is weaker than previously reported, or innate differences in vector preference among cultivars confounded any effects of vine susceptibility to infection.

Clones Identification and Genetic Characterization of Garnacha Grapevine by Means of Different PCR-Derived Marker Systems

This study uses PCR-derived marker systems to investigate the extent and distribution of genetic variability of 53 Garnacha accessions coming from Italy, France and Spain. The samples studied include 28 Italian accessions (named Tocai rosso in Vicenza area; Alicante in Sicily and Elba island; Gamay perugino in Perugia province; Cannonau in Sardinia), 19 Spanish accessions of different types (named Garnacha tinta, Garnacha blanca, Garnacha peluda, Garnacha roja, Garnacha erguida, Garnacha roya) and 6 French accessions (named Grenache and Grenache noir). In order to verify the varietal identity of the samples, analyses based on 14 simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci were performed. The presence of an additional allele at ISV3 locus (151bp) was found in four Tocai rosso accessions and in a Sardinian Cannonau clone, that are, incidentally, chimeras. In addition to microsatellite analysis, intravarietal variability study was performed using AFLP, SAMPL and M-AFLP molecular markers. AFLPs could discriminate among several Garnacha samples; SAMPLs allowed distinguishing few genotypes on the basis of their geographic origin, whereas M-AFLPs revealed plant-specific markers, differentiating all accessions. Italian samples showed the greatest variability among themselves, especially on the basis of their different provenance, while Spanish samples were the most similar, in spite of their morphological diversity.

Role of Glycosidic Aroma Precursors on the odorant profiles of Grenache noir and Syrah Wines from the Rhone valley. Part 2: characterisation of derived compounds

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Aims</strong>: Grenache noir and Syrah are the predominant grape varieties in the French Rhone valley vineyard. This study aimed at identifying the odorants generated from glycoconjugates extracted from wines made with Grenache noir and Syrah.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Methods and results</strong>: Synthetic model wines enriched with glycoconjugates, treated or not with enzymes, were stored at 45 °C for 3 weeks, or at 13 °C for 18 months. Aromas generated were extracted and analyzed by GC-Olfactometry (only samples from accelerated aging) and were further quantitatively determined by GC-MS. Analysis of the extracts allowed to identify 49 odorants, including 27 that could be aglycons, or related compounds, of glycoconjugates from the grapes. In addition, the active compounds were quantified in similar experiments led in conditions of natural aging for 18 months.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Conclusion</strong>: The two varieties, Grenache noir and Syrah, were distinguishable by 14 odorant zones. Multivariate analyses (PCA) performed with the amounts of aroma compounds formed during both model and natural aging confirmed the effect of the glycosidase treatment on the acceleration of the aroma compounds formation and on the increase of the varietal differences of the wines.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Significance and impact of study</strong>: GC-Olfactometry coupled with GCMS were good techniques to indentify and apreciate the odorants generated from glycoconjugates in the wines of Syrah and Grenache Noir, but in the context of a blend of odors, these techniques showed their limits and did not permit to determine the real impact of a molecule in the global aroma of the wine perceived by the taster. Other methods as additive techniques should be used to complete this study.</p>

Role of Glycosidic Aroma Precursors on the odorant profiles of Grenache noir and Syrah Wines from the Rhone valley. Part 1: sensory study

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Aims</strong>: The aim of this study was to demonstrate the impact of the volatile compounds, arising from glycosidic precursors contained in the berries of Vitis vinifera L.cv Syrah and Grenache noir varieties, on wine aromas from these varieties.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Methods and results</strong>: The sensory analysis was used to compare Grenache noir and Syrah wines. The role played by the glycosidic precursors on the future odorant profile of the wines from both varieties was demonstrated in an experiment by increasing their natural content in glycosides. Then, odorant compounds were generated by aging treatments, heating at 45 °C for 3 weeks, preceded or not by enzyme addition, or natural aging for 18 months. The wines were then submitted to a selected and trained panel. Samples were compared using triangular test. Furthermore, a quantitative descriptive analysis was carried out to determine the aroma attributes describing and discriminating the wines from the two varieties.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Conclusion</strong>: The glycoconjugates increased the global aromatic complexity, and enhanced the fruity aromas in Grenache wines and the leather or olive aromas in Syrah wines. The use of glycosidase enzymes led to a stewed fruit character in Grenache wines, whereas in Syrah wines, the samples enriched with glycosides differed according to the « terroir ».</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Significance and impact of study</strong>: This study showed the impact of the glycosidic fraction of the grapes on the varietal aroma of wines. Furthermore, comparisons of the results obtained by both aging techniques highlight the experimental interest of the aging model but also its limits.</p>

Influence of water status on mineral composition of berries in ‘Grenache Noir’ (Vitis vinifera L.)

The influence of vine water status on the seasonal changes of fresh weight, dry matter and the levels of potassium and calcium in grape-berries on field vines of 'Grenache Noir' ( Vitis vinifera L.), was studied over a two-year period. Two levels of water status, irrigated and non-irrigated, were investigated using a single level of total leaf surface – each primary shoot was confined to ten leaves, one grape bunch, and the secondary shoots were removed as they appeared. The mineral element contents were determined separately in different fruit compartments, i.e. the skin, flesh and seeds. Potassium and calcium accumulate independently of one another, but their seasonal change in the fruit and their final quantities in the berry depend principally on plant water status. The accumulation of potassium parallels the change in fruit fresh weight; approximately 50 % of the final content was accumulated pre-veraison and loading continued during berry ripening. This report shows that a small quantity of calcium may accumulate throughout fruit ripening phases in situations where water supply is not a limiting factor. These results imply that fruit xylem is functioning partially during ripening. Moreover, in both water status situations, the quantity of calcium in the skin increases during ripening, which suggests apoplastic and/or symplastic migration in the berry.

Study of polyamines and their precursor amino acids in Grenache noir and Syrah grapes and wine of the Rhone Valley

Polyamines and their amino acid precursors were determined in Grenache and Syrah grapes and in wines made from these grapes. The compounds analysed were the polyamines putrescine, spermidine, and spermine, in addition to their precursors, ornithine, agmatine and arginine. The analytes were determined by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection using FMOC (fluorenylmethylchloroformate) as a pre-column derivatising agent Grape clusters were sampled from flowering to full maturity at different developmental stages. In addition, different berry parts were analysed separately from half veraison onwards. It appears that at berryset there is a decrease in the concentration of arginine, whereas polyamine concentrations remain constant at this stage. Concentrations of polyamines increased from must to alcoholic to malolactic fermentation; putrescine was the most abundant in wine (mean concentration after malolactic fermentation, MLF was 4.93 mg/l) followed by spermidine and then spermine (mean concentrations after MLF were 1.84 and 0.17 mg/l, respectively). In three of the four fermentation sites concentrations of all three compounds were greater in Syrah than in Grenache wines. In both varieties, it appears that polyamine biosynthesis occurs preferentially from arginine via agmatine. In all cases, concentrations of polyamines found in these grapes and wines were significantly below the levels typically found in other fermented foods.

"Terroir" effect, as a result of enviromental stess, depends more on soil depth than on soil type (<em>Vitis vinifera</em> L. cv. Grenache Noir, Côtes du Rhône, France, 2000)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Among other elements of the natural environment, soil greatly influences vine behaviour and berry composition. Its influence is complex, because soil affects vine water and mineral uptake, as well as temperature in the root zone. In this research, investigations were undertaken to assess whether vine development and grape quality potentiel could be linked to specific soil types. 15 dry farmed plots planted with Vitis vinifera L. cv. Grenache noir were studied in 2000 on five soil types of the Southern Côtes du Rhône (France). No clear relationship could be established between soil type, vine growth, yield and berry composition. However, vine water and nitrogen status were related to soil depth. On shallow soils, vine water and nitrogen status were low, which resulted in early shoot growth cessation and moderate yield, as well as high berry sugar and anthocyanin content. Severe water stress is known for affecting negatively berry ripening. Nevertheless, although this study was carried out under dry, Mediterranean conditions, the grapes with the highest potential for making quality red wines were obtained on the soils with the lowest water holding capacity.</p>

Effects of water stress on dry matter content and partitioning in four grapevine cultivars (<em>Vitis vinifera</em> L.)

<p style="text-align: justify;">Three-year-old grapevines of four cultivars (Garnacha tinta (Grenache noir), Tempranillo, Chardonnay and Airén) were grown on 35 L container under full irrigation and restricted irrigation conditions in order to determine the effect of water stress on carbohydrate allocation. Total grapevine dry matter was measured at pruning, fruitset, veraison and harvest. Roots, wood, shoots, leaves and clusters were dried separately. Shoots were the most affected organs by water stress, while wood was the least affected. Vines under water stress partitioned more dry matter to wood and roots to the detriment of fruits and shoots. The period from fruitset to veraison was the most active for dry matter accumulation under conditions of stress, whereas non-water stressed vines accumulated more dry matter from veraison to harvest. Under both irrigation treatments, fruits competed with roots for dry matter partitioning. Irrigation treatment and cultivar determined fruit size. Fruit size determined dry matter partitioning between organs and the dry matter accumulation pattern.</p>

Contribution of Dimethyl Sulfide to the Aroma of Syrah and Grenache Noir Wines and Estimation of Its Potential in Grapes of These Varieties

The contribution of dimethyl sulfide (DMS) to the aroma of Syrah and Grenache Noir wines from the Rhone Valley of France was investigated by sensory analysis, and its levels in these wines were measured. The potential DMS in the corresponding grapes and wines, susceptible to release during wine aging, was evaluated. Free DMS and potential DMS assessed by a heat-alkaline treatment were measured in grape juices and wines by SPME-GC-MS using methods previously reported and slightly modified. A relationship between potential DMS from grapes and the total DMS levels in wine was demonstrated. Furthermore, a linear regression between the ratio of free DMS levels to these total DMS levels in wine and time of storage was found. Free and potential DMS levels in grapes and wines depended on grape variety, vintage, and vine location. DMS imparted a noticeable and complex contribution to the aroma of the wines investigated, depending on the mode of sensory perception used, either before or after glass swirling. It significantly enhanced the fruity notes of the wines, and additional truffle and black olive notes.

Determination of volatile compounds in Grenache wines in relation with different terroirs in the Rhone Valley.

This paper describes the study of 19 wines of the Grenache Noir cultivar obtained from representative soils of the Rhone Valley according to their geographical site, climatic conditions, hydrological regulation, and soil profile. Among the volatile compounds analyzed by GC/MS/FID, the concentrations of the varietal compounds (i.e., beta-damascenone, beta-ionone, and geraniol) and those of the compounds without direct influence on the wine aroma (i.e., hexenols and methanol) indicated the existence of two groups of wines. These concentrations were correlated with grape maturity due to the ecosystem and particularly the soil.