Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Projects Research Articles

Regulatory framework for decarbonization and greenhouse gas emission reduction projects in Russia

As a result of the alarming rise in environmental pollution in numerous developed nations since the mid-20th century, there has been a reevaluation of nature conservation laws, the establishment of new environmental legislative frameworks, stricter regulation and oversight in this field, and the creation of governmental bodies to enforce compliance with these laws. In several countries, the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions has emerged as a primary focus within climate and energy policies and development strategies. This emphasis is evident in various legislative acts and standards that promote the execution of projects aimed at diminishing CO2 emissions. One of the most important tasks in combating greenhouse gas emissions is the implementation of systems for monitoring and regulating the emissions of carbon dioxide and other associated harmful substances from sources into the atmosphere. This article is dedicated to analyzing the regulatory and legal framework and legislative system in the field of environmental protection and nature conservation activities in Russia and foreign countries. Using the example of Russian legislation, the mechanisms for the practical implementation of sustainable development strategies through the control of CO2 emissions will be demonstrated.

Farmers’ Willingness to Participate in Voluntary Field Water Management Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Projects Based on a Context–Attitude–Behavior Framework

The development of the greenhouse gas (GHGs) voluntary emission reduction market has created a new way for all agricultural GHGs emission reduction projects. Figuring out how to drive farmers to participate in the market is the key to the development of the agricultural voluntary emission reduction project mechanism. Current research on farmers’ participation in voluntary emission reduction projects has mostly been conducted from the perspective of the economic, social, and ecological benefits of the project and lacks research on analyzing farmers’ willingness to participate in combination with specific GHGs operational mechanisms. To find out how the operational mechanism of the field water management voluntary emission reduction (FWMVER) projects influences farmers’ willingness to participate in the project, this study constructed the attitude–context–behavior theoretical framework to consider the FWMVER operational mechanism. Based on the survey data of 789 rice farmers in GuangXi, China, the structural equation model (SEM) was adopted to analyze the impact of social networks, social trust, social norms, profit expectations, cost expectations, and satisfaction with the government in relation to the farmers’ willingness to participate in FWMVER projects. Results showed that social networks, social trust, social norms, profit expectations, cost expectations, and satisfaction with the government had significant impacts on the willingness of farmers to participate in FWMVER projects. Satisfaction with the government can effectively regulate the profit expectations and cost expectations for farmers to participate in the FWMVER projects. Policy implications were proposed based on analytical results to advise local governments to develop agricultural carbon finance, to improve public services in agricultural production, and to encourage establishing non-governmental organizations in rural areas involved in voluntary agricultural GHGs emission reduction projects.

유럽연합 및 한국의 최적가용기술(BAT) 개념 환경정책 적용 접근법 비교 연구 : 탄소시장의 최적가용기술(BAT) 베이스라인 방법론을 고려하여

Article 6.4 of the Paris Agreement introduces a baseline-and-crediting mechanism, the so-called sustainable development mechanism (SDM), which allows parties to meet their nationally determined contributions (NDCs). Currently, various options for baseline methodologies are being considered and negotiated as a part of the implementation rules of Article 6.4 of the Paris Agreement for greenhouse gas emission reduction projects. The best available technology (BAT) baseline methodology has been increasingly emphasized as an alternative to historical emission, business-as-usual (BAU), and performance-based baseline methodologies. However, the application of the BAT baseline methodology in the international carbon market remains under-explored. Also, the rise of the BAT baseline methodology had attracted attention to the concept of BAT in environmental policies and practices. Therefore, this paper attempts to examine the meaning of the BAT concept and BAT application in related environmental policies to ultimately explore strategic ways that the BAT baseline methodology can be used under the SDM in an integrated manner amongst related policy fields. First, this paper sets three policy areas where the concepts of BAT are applied, and they are the i) integrated pollution and prevention control policy, ii) cap-and-trade policy in the carbon market, and iii) baseline-and-crediting mechanism in the carbon market. Second, a comparative analysis is carried out on BAT application in three respective policy areas of the European Union (EU) and Korea. Analytical results revealed that the EU has strengthened BAT application in three policy areas based on their inter-linkage and accelerated technology innovation in those areas towards the level of BAT. Korea has also attempted to adopt the BAT approach in these three policy areas, but political measures as well as actual BAT practice are still limited. The policy implications of this study are that Korea needs to plan strategies for the use of BAT baseline methodology under the future SDM and also that the interconnections among BAT-related policies in Korea can enhance the efficiency of their implementation.

Divide and rule: The effects of diversity and network structure on a firm's sustainability performance

To tackle sustainability, firms often use partnerships with organizations from different industries or societal sectors such as government and civil society. While partnerships show potential for firms to improve their sustainability performance, they not only lead to a potential to learn from diversity but also to tensions due to a lack of unity between partners. In partnerships for sustainability, this unity-diversity tension particularly manifests itself in different views of sustainability. This paper examines how this tension affects the sustainability performance of firms taking part in partnerships for sustainability in developing countries. To address this question, this tension is conceptualized as being the result of differences in organizational frames and institutional logics between a focal firm and other organizations in the partnership. It is also taken into consideration that firms are embedded in an overarching, relational network structure that allows them to manage the diversity in frames and logics. To test the hypotheses, the study analyses 1353 greenhouse gas emission reduction projects of 322 firms from developing countries active in the carbon-offset market from 2007 to 2009. The findings show that if partners hold different frames and belong to different sectors, a firm's sustainability performance improves first due to learning from diversity but after a turning point decreases from a lack of unity. This inverse U-shape relationship is flipped if a firm occupies a brokerage position in its network.

Ex-post assessment of the Kyoto Protocol – quantification of CO2 mitigation impact in both Annex B and non-Annex B countries-

The Kyoto Protocol implemented the first international top-down mechanisms and provided mitigation incentives for both Annex B and non-Annex B countries. An assessment of the Kyoto Protocol would contribute to the fundamental discussion on designing future mitigation mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, while the use of a top-down approach that includes an emission trading scheme appears important for achieving the 2 °C target. This paper summarizes the existing literature and quantifies the effects of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction impacts from the Kyoto Protocol using the Stochastic Impacts by Regression on Population, Affluence and Technology (STIRPAT) approach for Annex B countries and 'additionality' assessment of Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) projects for non-Annex B countries. We found that the Kyoto Protocol brought about 951 Mt CO2e of real emission reductions in all over the world, mainly from implementing non-energy-related GHG emission reduction projects in non-Annex B countries. For the Annex B countries, 76 Mt CO2e of mitigation occurred during the preparation stage of the first commitment period (2005–2007), but no further effects were observed during the first commitment period (2008–2012). The following important lessons were learned from the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol: (1) insufficient emission caps did not provide any mitigation incentives; rather, they resulted in perverse effects amounting to 12 Mt CO2e, which increased emissions in certain Annex B countries with economies in transition; and (2) since 42% of energy-related projects in non-Annex B countries were assessed as non-additional projects, more attention needs to be paid to the design of international cooperation mechanisms.

Climate and Health Co-Benefits in Low-Income Countries: A Case Study of Carbon Financed Water Filters in Kenya and a Call for Independent Monitoring.

Background:The recent global climate agreement in Paris aims to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions while fostering sustainable development and establishes an international trading mechanism to meet this goal. Currently, carbon offset program implementers are allowed to collect their own monitoring data to determine the number of carbon credits to be awarded.Objectives:We summarize reasons for mandating independent monitoring of greenhouse gas emission reduction projects. In support of our policy recommendations, we describe a case study of a program designed to earn carbon credits by distributing almost one million drinking water filters in rural Kenya to avert the use of fuel for boiling water. We compare results from an assessment conducted by our research team in the program area among households with pregnant women or caregivers in rural villages with low piped water access with the reported program monitoring data and discuss the implications.Discussion:Our assessment in Kenya found lower levels of household water filter usage than the internal program monitoring reported estimates used to determine carbon credits; we found 19% (n = 4,041) of households reported filter usage 2–3 years after filter distribution compared to the program stated usage rate of 81% (n = 14,988) 2.7 years after filter distribution. Although carbon financing could be a financially sustainable approach to scale up water treatment and improve health in low-income settings, these results suggest program effectiveness will remain uncertain in the absence of requiring monitoring data be collected by third-party organizations.Conclusion:Independent monitoring should be a key requirement for carbon credit verification in future international carbon trading mechanisms to ensure programs achieve benefits in line with sustainable development goals.Citation:Pickering AJ, Arnold BF, Dentz HN, Colford JM Jr., Null C. 2017. Climate and health co-benefits in low-income countries: a case study of carbon financed water filters in Kenya and a call for independent monitoring. Environ Health Perspect 125:278–283; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/EHP342

Monetary valuation of the social cost of CO2 emissions: A critical survey

An expanding branch of research has estimated the potential costs of climate change, which are often expressed as the “Social Cost of Carbon” (SCC) or the costs of an additional ton of CO2 emissions. Estimates of the SCC can be used by policy makers to evaluate climate change policies and greenhouse gas emission reduction projects by means of cost–benefit analyses (CBAs). Such analyses are complicated by the wide range of SCC values that have been reported in the literature, and the large uncertainties involved in estimating the potential economic impacts and related costs of climate change. This study presents a critical review of the reported SCC estimates by examining some neglected consequences of climate change, uncertain and extreme scenarios of climate change, the discounting of future climate change effects, the treatment of individual risk aversion, and assumptions about social welfare. In view of the many uncertainties and omissions in conventional cost–benefit analyses of climate impacts and the SCC, alternative approaches to decision-making should be considered for climate policy.

Navigating Canada's greenhouse gas policy landscape: a comparison of carbon market mechanisms in the oil and gas sector

Canada has the third largest oil reserves in the world and its production is expected to grow to 4.9 million barrels per day by 2020. As energy production and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions grow, Canada's provincial governments are implementing policies that utilize market-based mechanisms to mitigate GHG emissions. The oil and gas sector should seek to understand this fragmented policy landscape as there is significant business risk that the policy and legal environment will change quickly, imposing incremental costs to regulated emitters. Market-based regulations also give oil and gas producers the opportunity to gain a competitive advantage by developing new forms of revenue from commoditizing GHG emission reduction projects. This research compares carbon market mechanisms across and within jurisdictional boundaries using seven criteria: facility type, project type, baseline, additionality, crediting period, measurement, monitoring and verification, and credit value. These criteria are used to compare ...

China's Carbon Emissions Pricing Options: Based on Black-Scholes Model Testing

In this paper, by analyzing the cause of the weak power for China's carbon emissions, we design the trading and OTC options contracts of China's carbon emissions. By testing we found that the pricing method can indeed improve the pricing power of carbon emissions and acquire more transactions in negotiations .The policy implications of this article: Firstly, China should combine with domestic and international progress to plan the framework of China's carbon emissions trading as soon as possible. Secondly, we also launch the research of carbon emissions trading market and experimental work; the third, establishing trading center with the market-oriented to guide China's implementation of greenhouse gas emission reduction projects and to achieve Low-cost emission.

Assessment of greenhouse gas mitigation options and costs for California Petroleum Industry facilities: The shape of things to come

The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 sets a goal for the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020. In preparation for implementation of a cap and trade program under this Act, Chevron has undertaken a detailed assessment of greenhouse gas mitigation options and costs. Such an assessment is key to making compliance decisions within the constraints of a given cap and trade regime. If the cap and trade market is minimally restricted (i.e., recognizes that climate change is a global issue and thus has no geographic restrictions and no set requirement for onsite emission reductions), facilities can make the best economic (and environmental) choices of where to ‘make’ emission reductions inside the facility fenceline and when to ‘buy’ the emission reduction allowances or credits on the market. The scope of the study included Chevron’s two refineries and a large heavy oil steamflood production operation in California. This paper will discuss how mitigation technologies are identified and assessed, describe some of the key greenhouse gas mitigation alternatives of interest to the Chevron California facilities and present a business-based approach to analyzing mitigation costs. Technologies studied included energy efficiency, advanced energy (solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, nuclear, low temperature heat recovery) and carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS). For each mitigation option, a consistent methodology, based on the International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association/American Petroleum Institute (IPIECA/API) Guidelines for Evaluation of Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Projects was used to assess baseline or ‘business as usual’ emissions, net emission reductions due to the project, capital cost, operating cost and any project benefits (e.g., reduced fuel use for energy efficiency projects). These values were then entered into a business evaluation tool to calculate a Net Present Value for each option. Key conclusions: Broad involvement of various disciplines is needed to identify new alternatives for greenhouse gas mitigation technologies. Other than CCS, options for significant reductions of refinery and petroleum production emissions were extremely limited in the facilities studied. Since cost-effective, feasible options are limited for refineries and petroleum production facilities, availability of sufficient allowances and offsets is an important element if state goals are to be achieved. Although a number of energy efficiency projects were identified, the cumulative total emissions reductions available through energy efficiency projects is minimal. Renewable and advanced energy projects that generate electricity generally have very high mitigation costs, and may not greatly benefit facilities if emission caps apply only to direct emissions, since these projects reduce the quantity of purchased electricity rather than emissions from the facility itself (and are therefore not eligible for credit under most regulatory design schemes). Renewable and advanced energy technologies for steam generation may have significant mitigation potential for heavy oil steamflood production. Further development and demonstration is needed to determine whether these technologies will be viable. In order to support good business decisions, it is important that greenhouse gas mitigation technology evaluation be done in a manner consistent with other business evaluation processes.

What determines UN approval of greenhouse gas emission reduction projects in developing countries?

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), established by the Kyoto protocol, can generate substantial rents for project participants via the sale of Certified Emission Reductions. For this reason, supposedly technical decisions about the approval of CDM methodologies and about the registration of projects may be driven by benefits to specific countries or interest groups. Our econometric analysis of data for about 250 methodologies and about 1000 projects discussed by the CDM Executive Board (EB) so far, suggests that indeed, along with formal quality criteria, political-economic variables determine the final EB decision.

Harmonizing the quantification of CCS GHG emission reductions through oil and natural gas industry project guidelines

Abstract The technological option of capturing CO 2 from large point sources, compressing, transporting, and injecting it for long -term storage holds the potential for playing a key role in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while providing affordable energy. The oil and natur al gas industry experience and expertise provide confidence in carbon capture and geological storage (CCS) as an effective GHG emission mitigation option. However, companies need consistent, reliable, and credible methodologies to derive GHG emission and emission reduction estimates. Harmonizing the quantification of GHG emission reductions, by applying common principles and criteria, supports efficient and consistent development of additional project activities. This paper provides an overview of the P etroleum Industry Guidelines for Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Projects (referred to as the Project Guidelines), a collaborative effort between the American Petroleum Institute (API) and the International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA) to develop guidelines for accounting and reporting of GHG emission reduction projects of interest to the oil and natural gas industry. Key concepts from the Project Guidelines for evaluating, quantifying, documenting, and reporting GHG emission reductions are presented with a specific focus on CCS activities. The paper draws from the Project Guidelines in add ressing the selection of appropriate baseline candidates, boundaries for scenario assessment, and compatible monitoring considerations. Case studies are used to demonstrate the application of commonly accepted emission reduction principles for CCS projects. Through the Project Guidelines, API and IPIECA aim to assist the petroleum industry in identifying, assessing, and developi ng CCS projects. By working toward consistent standards for GHG emissions reductions, our industry demonstrates its commitments toward environmental improvements and p romotes the development of real and sustainable actions to reduce GHG emissions.

A basic study with feasibility of applying clean development mechanism to the transport projects

In the transport sector, few projects applied Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) or Joint Implementation (JI) projects. This study will examine the feasibility of applying CDM to the transport sector from viewpoints of validation of processes and funding. A number of greenhouse gas emission reduction projects, as well as traffic management project within existing transport infrastructures, can be implemented as CDM projects. New transport infrastructure projects can be validated by transportdemand forecasting and traffic simulation methods, though application of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) technologies.

Estimating the CDM market under the Marrakech Accords

The agreement on implementation of the Kyoto Protocol achieved at COP7 in Marrakech has important implications for investment in greenhouse gas emission reduction projects in developing countries through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The required actual emission reductions for participating Annex B countries overall will be relatively small, as the United States do not intend to ratify the protocol and significant amounts of carbon sequestered in domestic sinks can be credited. In addition, the potential supply of surplus emission permits (hot air) from Russia and other economies in transition may be as high as total demand in the first commitment period. Thus, even under restraint of hot air sellers, CDM demand will be limited, and a low demand, low price carbon market scenario appears likely. The magnitude of the CDM will be influenced by a host of factors both on the demand and the supply-side. We analyse these using a quantitative model of the global carbon market, based on marginal abatement cost curves. Implementation and transaction costs, as well as baseline and additionality rules affect the CDM’s share in the carbon market. Demand for the CDM is sensitive to changes in business-as-usual emissions growth in participating Annex B countries, and also to crediting for additional sinks. Permit supply from Russia and other economies in transition is possibly the most crucial factor in the carbon market.

Estimating the CDM market under the Marrakech Accords

The agreement on implementation of the Kyoto Protocol achieved at COP7 in Marrakech has important implications for investment in greenhouse gas emission reduction projects in developing countries through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The required actual emission reductions for participating Annex B countries overall will be relatively small, as the United States do not intend to ratify the protocol and significant amounts of carbon sequestered in domestic sinks can be credited. In addition, the potential supply of surplus emission permits (hot air) from Russia and other economies in transition may be as high as total demand in the first commitment period. Thus, even under restraint of hot air sellers, CDM demand will be limited, and a low demand, low price carbon market scenario appears likely. The magnitude of the CDM will be influenced by a host of factors both on the demand and the supply-side. We analyse these using a quantitative model of the global carbon market, based on marginal abatement cost curves. Implementation and transaction costs, as well as baseline and additionality rules affect the CDM's share in the carbon market. Demand for the CDM is sensitive to changes in business-as-usual emissions growth in participating Annex B countries, and also to crediting for additional sinks. Permit supply from Russia and other economies in transition is possibly the most crucial factor in the carbon market.

Market potential for Kyoto mechanisms—estimation of global market potential for co-operative greenhouse gas emission reduction policies

The Kyoto protocol established by the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in December 1997 includes three articles that provide a framework for co-operative greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction activities between different parties namely, Article 6 on Joint Implementation (JI), Article 12 on the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Article 17 that facilitates emission trading among Annex B countries. The current paper estimates the potential demand and supply of GHG emission reduction projects with a main emphasis on the supply of CDM projects from developing countries (DCs). It is concluded that the demand for GHG emission reduction projects from Annex B countries, including domestic actions in Annex B countries, JI projects, emission trading and CDM projects in total will be between about 500 and 1300 Mt C in 2010. The demand for CDM projects supplied by DCs will most likely not be very large compared with the total future GHG emissions in these countries according to recent scenario work undertaken by the IPCC. National studies for DCs have concluded that GHG emission reductions in the energy sector in the order of magnitude of 10–15% of future baseline emissions can be achieved for a cost below $25 per tonne of CO 2.