Green Ripe Fruit Research Articles

Analysis of Main Components of Five Mulberry Varieties in Tropics.

Mulberries (Morus alba L.) contain rich and beneficial nutrients for human health. However, as a temperate adaptive species, high-temperature and high-humidity climate conditions may alter the main nutritional value of mulberries after their intended arrival in tropical regions, which has not yet been reported on. In this study, we analyzed the differences in morphology, sugars, organic acids, free amino acids, and aroma contents of five mulberry varieties in the tropics between two harvesting periods. The results show that the full-ripe fruits of M. laevigata W (TLM) have the longest fruit length (83.67 mm) and highest brix (25.90); meanwhile, full-ripe fruits of M. atropurpurea R (D10M) have the longest fruit transverse stem (20.00 ± 0.577 mm) and single-fruit weight (9.63 ± 0.033 g). Fructose, glucose, and sucrose were the main sugars, and oxalic acid, quinic acid, malic acid, and citric acid were the main organic acids in all varieties; in addition, the sucrose content in mature fruits of M. laevigata W. (BLM) and M. alba L. BZZ (BZM) was significantly higher than other sugars. Twenty free amino acids were detected in all five varieties and asparagine was the main free amino acid. A total of 100 volatile compounds were identified, including 31 esters, 20 aldehydes, 14 hydrocarbons, 11 alcohols, 10 acids, 6 ketones, and 8 others. Although the main components of five mulberry full-ripe fruits were significantly higher than the green-ripe fruits, gamma-amino butyric acid and a few other components were otherwise. The research results show that the tropical climate conditions could increase the main nutritional components of mulberries, but the specific molecular regulatory mechanisms need to be further analyzed.

Green ripe fruit in tomato: unraveling the genetic tapestry from cultivated to wild varieties

Green ripe fruit in tomato: unraveling the genetic tapestry from cultivated to wild varieties

Defective mutations in STAY-GREEN 1, PHYTOENE SYNTHASE 1, and MYB12 genes lead to formation of green ripe fruit in tomato.

Modern tomatoes produce colorful mature fruits, but many wild tomato ancestors form green or gray green ripe fruits. Here, tomato cultivar 'Lvbaoshi' (LBS) that produces green ripe fruits was found to contain three recessive loci responsible for fruit development. The colorless peel of LBS fruits was caused by a 603 bp deletion in the promoter of SlMYB12. The candidate genes of the remaining two loci were identified as STAY-GREEN 1 (SlSGR1) and PHYTOENE SYNTHASE 1 (SlPSY1). SGR1 and PSY1 co-suppression by RNAi converted the pink fruits into green ripe fruits in transgenic plants. An amino acid change in PSY1 and a deletion in the promoter of SGR1 were also identified in several wild tomatoes bearing green or gray ripe fruits. Overexpression of PSY1 from green ripe fruit wild tomatoes in LBS plants could only partially rescue the green ripe fruit phenotype of LBS, and transgenic lines expressing ProSGR1::SGR1 from Solanum pennellii also failed to convert purple-flesh into red-flesh fruits. This work uncovers a novel regulatory mechanism by which SlMYB12, SlPSY1, and SlSGR1 control fruit color in cultivated and some wild tomato species.

Identification of R2R3-MYB gene family reveal candidate genes for anthocyanin biosynthesis in Lonicera caerulea fruit based on RNA-seq data

BACKGROUND: R2R3-MYB transcription factor (TF) family plays important roles in various biological processes in many plants, especially in the regulation of plant flavonoid accumulation. The fruit of Lonicera caerulea contains abundant anthocyanin. OBJECTIVE: The R2R3-MYB TF family was systematically analyzed according to the RNA-seq data, and the R2R3-MYB candidate genes that were involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis in the fruit of Lonicera caerulea were screened. METHODS: The R2R3-MYB TFs in Lonicera caerulea were identified, and the physical and chemical properties, protein conserved sequence alignment and motifs of each R2R3-MYB TFs were analyzed using bioinformatics methods. The expression levels of these genes and anthocyanin levels in different tissues and different developmental stages of fruit were determined by RT-qPCR and pH shift method. RESULTS: A total of 59 genes encoding R2R3-MYB TFs in Lonicera caerulea were identified and clustered into 20 subgroups (C1 to C20) based on the relationship to AtR2R3-MYBs. Expression profiles showed that the expression of CL6086 and CL552 in fruit were higher than other tissues, and upregulated in the veraison fruit compared to the green ripe fruit. As the expression of the two genes was concurrent with the anthocyanin content, and showed high correlation with anthocyanin biosynthetic structural genes, they were considered as closely related to anthocyanin biosynthesis in the fruit. CONCLUSION: The results provide a systematic analysis of LcR2R3-MYBs, and the foundation for further molecular mechanisms research of anthocyanin biosynthesis regulated by R2R3-MYB in the fruit of Lonicera caerulea.

Genuine Carotenoid Profiles in Sweet Orange [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck cv. Navel] Peel and Pulp at Different Maturity Stages.

The carotenogenesis in the endocarp and flavedo of Navel oranges over four consecutive maturity stages was assessed by high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-multistage mass spectrometry. After optimization of the extraction method, 77 carotenoids, including 26 monoesters and 33 diesters of violaxanthin, β-citraurin, and antheraxanthin, were characterized. Whereas chloroplast-specific pigments, such as (all-E)-lutein and (all-E)-β-carotene, predominated in the flavedo of green-ripe fruit, a highly complex pattern of xanthophyll esters was found in the mature oranges. Total carotenoid contents of flavedo were approximately 9-fold higher [12 605 μg/100 g of fresh weight (FW)] than those in the endocarp (1354 μg/100 g of FW) at the fully mature stage. The mature endocarp abundantly contained violaxanthin mono- and diesters, in addition to diverse antheraxanthin esters, which were exclusively detected in this fruit fraction. Likewise, β-citraurin esters were found to be unique flavedo constituents of mature fruit. Therefore, they may support the detection of fraudulent use of peel fractions during orange juice production.

Bicolored display of Miconia albicans fruits: Evaluating visual and physiological functions of fruit colors.

Most bird-dispersed fruits are green when unripe and become colored and conspicuous when ripe, signaling that fruits are ready to be consumed and dispersed. The color pattern for fruits of Miconia albicans (Melastomataceae), however, is the opposite, with reddish unripe and green ripe fruits. We (1) verified the maintenance over time of its bicolored display, (2) tested the communicative function of unripe fruits, (3) tested the photoprotective role of anthocyanins in unripe fruits, and (4) verified whether green ripe fruits can assimilate carbon. Using a paired experiment, we tested whether detection of ripe fruits was higher on infructescences with unripe and ripe fruits compared with infructescences with only ripe fruits. We also measured and compared gas exchange, chlorophyll a fluorescence, and heat dissipation of covered (to prevent anthocyanin synthesis) and uncovered ripe and unripe fruits. Although the bicolored display was maintained over time, unripe fruits had no influence on bird detection and removal of ripe fruits. Ripe and unripe fruits did not assimilate CO2, but they respired instead. Since the communicative function of unripe fruits was not confirmed, seed dispersers are unlikely to select the display with bicolored fruits. Because of the absence of photosynthetic activity in ripe and unripe fruits and enhanced photoprotective mechanisms in ripe fruits rather than in unripe fruits, we could not confirm the photoprotective role of anthocyanins in unripe fruits. As an alternative hypothesis, we suggest that the bicolored fruit display could be an adaptation to diversify seed dispersal vectors instead of restricting dispersal to birds and that anthocyanins in unripe fruits may have a defense role against pathogens.

Assignment of distinctive volatiles, descriptive sensory analysis and consumer preference of differently ripened and post-harvest handled pineapple (Ananas comosus [L.] Merr.) fruits

Volatiles of differently ripened fresh pineapples were investigated by a non-targeted profiling analysis comparing fruits harvested at full maturity exported by rapid air freight to pineapples harvested at an earlier green-ripe stage. The latter fruits were exported by sea freight and analysed upon arrival at their destination and after post-harvest flavour genesis. Volatiles were analysed by headspace solid-phase microextraction, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and multivariate statistical data analysis. Clear-cut differences in the volatile profiles were found. Fully ripe air-freighted pineapples were characterised by elevated concentrations of two 1,3,5,8-undecatetraene isomers, methyl 3-methylbutanoate and 4-methoxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone, which have been reported as potent contributors to the pineapple flavour. Compared to fully ripened fruits, development of volatiles of sea-freighted pineapples upon arrival in Europe was rudimentary. Post-harvest storage of sea-freighted pineapples resulted in a different volatile profile due to the genesis of hydroxylated and acetoxylated methyl esters and hexanal. Subsequent descriptive sensory analysis was performed by trained panellists comparing retronasal odour and taste profiles. Fully ripe fruits were characterised by a pineapple-like note, fruity flavours and a sweet taste. In contrast, most of these attributes were rated at lower intensities when premature green-ripe fruits were tested. At the end of the post-harvest period, sea-freighted pineapples were characterised by fruity notes accompanied by a musty/corky- and cardboard-like off-flavour. Odour, taste and overall preference were significantly higher rated for air-freighted pineapples as revealed by an untrained consumer panel.

Ripening-dependent metabolic changes in the volatiles of pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.) fruit: II. Multivariate statistical profiling of pineapple aroma compounds based on comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Ripening-dependent changes of pineapple volatiles were studied in a nontargeted profiling analysis. Volatiles were isolated via headspace solid phase microextraction and analyzed by comprehensive 2D gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC×GC-qMS). Profile patterns presented in the contour plots were evaluated applying image processing techniques and subsequent multivariate statistical data analysis. Statistical methods comprised unsupervised hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA) to classify the samples. Supervised partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and partial least squares (PLS) regression were applied to discriminate different ripening stages and describe the development of volatiles during postharvest storage, respectively. Hereby, substantial chemical markers allowing for class separation were revealed. The workflow permitted the rapid distinction between premature green-ripe pineapples and postharvest-ripened sea-freighted fruits. Volatile profiles of fully ripe air-freighted pineapples were similar to those of green-ripe fruits postharvest ripened for 6days after simulated sea freight export, after PCA with only two principal components. However, PCA considering also the third principal component allowed differentiation between air-freighted fruits and the four progressing postharvest maturity stages of sea-freighted pineapples.

Preparation of Polyclonal Antibody and Expression Analysis of GR in Tomato

The fruit ripening of Green-ripe (Gr) mutant tomato was inhibited dramatically. To determine the expression patterns of Gr in tomato, we first produced the polyclonal antibody of Gr protein. RT-PCR was used to amplify the Gr gene from green ripe tomato fruit. And the PCR product was subcloned into prokaryotic protein expression vectors pET-30a to generate recombinant plasmid. The Gr protein was induced by IPTG in BL21 (DE3) and purified by Ni-NTA agarose column. The anti-Gr serum was produced by immunizing rabbits, and the titer of the anti-Gr serum was above 5000 by ELISA analysis. Purified by the DEAE-52 ion-column, the high purification level of anti-Gr polyclonal antibody was obtained. Furthermore, RT-CPR was used in the RNA level to demonstrate that the expression of Gr gene was specialized in some cultures of tomato. For example, the expressions of Gr were higher in seed, flower and green ripe fruit than others, and the expression level were reduced by exogenous ethylene treatment in the flower and green ripe fruit. Moreover, Polyclonal antibody of Gr was used to investigate the expression pattern of Gr in protein level by the Western blotting. Our results show that the expression level of Gr in protein level was complied with the expressions in RNA. So, we suggested that the regulation of Gr was transcriptional.

INFLUENCE OF REFRIGERATED STORAGE ON THE QUALITY AND SHELF LIFE OF ´HABANERO´ CHILI PEPPERS (CAPSICUM CHINENSE JACQ.)

Hot chili peppers are used in a number of commercial food and industrial applications. 'Habanero' chili pepper (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) from the Yucatan Peninsula is known for its distinctive, very hot flavor; a result of the region's climate and soil conditions. A study was done of the effect of ripeness stage at harvest and refrigerated storage on 'Habanero' chili shelf life and quality characteristics. Pepper fruit were harvested at three ripeness stages: green; green ripe; and beginning changing to orange. Samples of all three stages were stored at room temperature (22°C) and evaluations made of quality changes to the fruit during a 15-day period. Ripe green peppers were stored at 7°C over a 35-day period in perforated polyethylene bags. Samples were taken periodically, left to ripen at 22°C and evaluations made of general appearance, weight loss, acidity, vitamin C content, skin color, firmness and total capsaicinoid content. Results indicate that optimum ripeness stage for harvest is green ripe as the peppers develop enhanced quality characteristics and have a longer, 10-day, shelf life at 22°C. Peak 'Habanero' chili quality under storage conditions was attained using refrigeration of green ripe fruits for 20 days followed by ripening for 5 days at 22°C.

Efeitos de modos de aplicação e concentrações de etefon na coloração da casa e outros atributos de qualidade do abacaxi 'Pérola'

As crescentes exigências do consumidor por uma aparência melhor do abacaxi 'Pérola' têm levado os produtores e intermediários a efetuarem aplicações do fitorregulador etefon sem o devido embasamento técnico-científico, com conseqüências negativas para os frutos e o material de plantio. Este trabalho visou a avaliar os efeitos de modos de aplicação e concentrações de etefon sobre a coloração da casca e outros aspectos externos e internos dos frutos de abacaxi 'Pérola', durante o armazenamento sob condições ambientais. Frutos verdosos foram colhidos e tratados em plantio comercial, em Itaberaba-BA, e, em seguida, armazenados e avaliados na Embrapa Mandioca e Fruticultura, Cruz das Almas-BA. Em delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com esquema fatorial 4 x 3 + 1 e número variável de repetições (cinco ou mais), foram estudadas quatro concentrações (500 mg L-1, 1.000 mg L-1, 2.000 mg L-1 e 4.000 mg L-1) de etefon, ácido 2-cloroetilfosfônico, diluído em água, além do tratamento-testemunha (0 mg L-1), e três formas de aplicação (pulverização com jato tipo 'filete' dirigido a um lado do fruto na pré-colheita, pulverização sobre os frutos colhidos e acondicionados aleatoriamente em balaios na pós-colheita, e imersão dos frutos, por dez segundos, depois de colhidos, sem atingir as coroas). Aos quatro, cinco, sete e onze dias após a colheita, foram avaliados a coloração e a firmeza da casca, bem como a coloração, firmeza, translucidez, teores de sólidos solúveis totais (SST), acidez (ATT) e a relação SST/ATT da polpa. O etefon acelerou o amarelecimento dos frutos, sem afetar a firmeza da casca e a qualidade interna dos frutos. A imersão determinou amarelecimento mais rápido e uniforme da casca dos frutos do que o observado para as demais formas de aplicação. Os resultados obtidos permitem recomendar a imersão rápida dos frutos de abacaxi 'Pérola', logo após a colheita, em soluções de etefon, nas concentrações de 500 a 2.000 mg L-1.

Why some fruits are green when they are ripe: carbon balance in fleshy fruits.

Fruits that are green upon ripening ("green-ripe") tend to be dispersed by a limited range of frugivores, whereas those that are brightly colored ("bright-ripe") are dispersed by a wide range of birds and mammals. Because green fruits are probably less conspicuous than other colors of fruits, their pigmentation cannot be attributed to the attraction of seed dispersers. Instead, we hypothesize that a major benefit of green pigmentation is the ability to photosynthesize when ripe. Photosynthesis by fruits may lower their costs of production, and could result in fruits with greater nutrient reward. We present data on physical, chemical, and photosynthetic characteristics of ripe fleshy fruit of variable colors for 28 plant species at the La Selva Biological Station, Costa Rica. In addition to color and morphological characteristics of pulp and seeds, we report soluble solids content (refractive index), and photosynthetic/respiratory carbon-dioxide balance of ripe fruits. Carbon balance was much more dependent upon ambient light levels in green-ripe fruits than in bright-ripe fruit. In particular, data from light response curves indicated that green-ripe fruits may go into positive carbon balance at high light levels (above 300 μmol/m2/s). Rather than finding a positive relationship between soluble solids content and green fruit, as we predicted based on photosynthetic capacity, our data indicate that greater respiration rates of green-ripe fruits may result in carbon losses at low light levels. Our results were consistent with previously described morphological differences between the two color classes, with green-ripe fruits displaying significantly greater wet pulp mass, wet seed mass, and total fruit mass. Our data suggest that photosynthesis due to the retention of chlorophyll in ripe fleshy fruit may offset respiratory costs for plants with large or otherwise costly fruit, but this advantage should be evident only under high-light conditions.

Ripening Behavior of the Green Ripe Tomato Mutant

Abstract The fruit ripening behavior of the green ripe mutant (Gr) of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) was examined. Green ripe fruit are climacteric and evolve increasing amounts of ethylene after harvest; however, the time course for these events is dramatically altered in comparison with ‘Rutgers’. Maximal rates of C2H4 evolution from Gr fruit were achieved 20 days after the initial increase, and 7 to 10 days prior to maximal respiratory rates. Fruit age at harvest did not affect either the rate or the magnitude of these processes. Wavelength scans of pigment extracts from 60 day postharvest Gr fruit indicated low levels of carotenoids. Mutant fruit also remain firm a long time after harvest. Polygalacturonase activity in Gr fruit increases with fruit age, but reaches only 3% to 5% of the total activity in ‘Rutgers’. PG activity was only slightly reduced when extracts were heated to 65°C for 5 min, suggesting that a heat stable isoenzyme of PG is predominant in mature mutant fruit in contrast to ‘Rutgers’ in which 90% to 95% of PG activity in ripe fruit is heat labile under these conditions. When heterozygous, the Gr mutation is dominant in its effects on total PG activity and on the time course from the initiation of C2H4 and respiratory increases to their maximal rates of evolution. The magnitude of other changes in heterozygous mutant fruit was intermediate between normal and homozygous Gr.

Título en español.

La calidad del mango depende en gran medida de la etapa de crecimiento y la época de recolección. En este estudio se observó la relación que pueda haber entre el diámetro mayor de la fruta de la cultivar Edward con el proceso de maduración. Las frutas se seleccionaron por su tamaño y madurez aparente; solo las de color verde, pero de distintos tamaños. Estas se almacenaron a 70° F (21° C) y 85-90% humedad relativa para observar su comportamiento durante el almacenamiento. Las frutas cuyo diámetro mayor era de 3 pulgadas o más maduraron bien y eran de buena calidad. Las frutas de menos de 3 pulgadas maduraron en menor proporción. En las pequeñas se observaron algunos signos de baja calidad, tales como el arrugamiento de la piel y el desarrollo de un color amarillo opaco. Los análisis químicos demuestran que hay un incremento en el contenido en almidón a medida que aumenta el diámetro de la fruta. Este se hidroliza en azúcares rápidamente a medida que progresa la madurez. Al mismo tiempo la acidez disminuye, por lo cual el sabor es más agradable.

‘Kadesh’ Table Olive1

Abstract The selection of olive (Olea europaea L.) cultivars goes back to early biblical times. The main objectives were high oil content and regional adaptability. Subsequently, olive cultivars were selected also on a size basis for table consumption. In the last hundred years, form and size of green table olives became even more important than their oil content, but still, the minimum oil content was not lower than 7 to 8% oil of fresh wt for green ripe fruit. Selection for low-oil-content olives has not been attempted in the past. However, with diet consciousness and increased awareness of public health, the development of low-oil-content olive, particularly for dietetic use is of interest. This release describes a new olive named ‘Kadesh’ with extrem ely low oil content, yield stability, and relatively easy rooting (1).