Green Algal Blooms Research Articles

A paleoenvironmental and ecological analysis of biomarkers from the Eocene Fossil Basin, Green River Formation, U.S.A.

Exceptionally well-preserved fossil specimens in the Fossil Basin of the Green River Formation (GRF) have made it the subject of extensive paleontological study, but the organic molecular framework that evolved during a key paleoclimatic and fossil-bearing interval during the early Eocene is poorly understood. Whereas the organic geochemistry of the larger co-eval GRF basins has been extensively characterized, our molecular understanding of the fossil-bearing layers in the Fossil Basin and the drivers of the exceptional fossilization therein remain unresolved. To bridge this gap, sediments from the famous 18″-layer — the fossiliferous horizon that is extensively quarried for exceptional soft-tissue fossils — were sampled for organic and isotopic geochemical characterisation. The results show that the Fossil Basin sedimentary archive is geochemically distinct from other GRF basins, as exemplified by the absence of the classical biomarker β-carotane and minimal evidence for the large green algal blooms that predominate in the other GRF lake basins. Photic zone euxinia (PZE), anoxia, and a freshwater cap enabled development of a productive and diverse ecosystem. Salinity and density stratification prevented vertical mixing of the water column and supported preservation of decaying carcasses. In contrast to other GRF basins, the small areal extent and ellipsoid shape of the Fossil Basin focussed terrestrial and freshwater inputs into the lake, resulting in ideal conditions for preservation of an exceptional fossil record.

Impact of reclamation projects on water quality in jinmeng bay, China

Since 2015, green tides have recurred annually in Jinmeng Bay (JMB), China. Reclamation projects have been considered an important anthropogenic perturbation in JMB for green tides. A coupled hydrodynamic and water quality model was used to simulate hydrodynamic and transport processes for different artificial structure scenarios. Numerical results prove that reclamation projects exert a significant impact on the water environment in JMB, and nutrient distributions are mainly influenced by Conch Island, which decreases pollutant dilution and diffusion in coastal waters. Moreover, the average residence time increases by about 35% after the construction of the two artificial islands. Areas with long residence time coincide with the major sources of the green tide blooms, which declares that the weak water exchange capacity affected by artificial islands is responsible for the water quality degradation. The increased nutrient levels and hydraulic residence time also suggest the high possibility of green algal blooms in JMB.

Green algae outcompete cyanobacteria in a shallow lake, Longhu Lake

Abstract Green algae are natural competitors of cyanobacteria, but we still do not know why green algae have a competitive advantage in shallow lakes. In this study, we used qPCR to quantify and monitor green algae and cyanobacteria in Longhu Lake. Our results showed that green algae were dominant in Longhu Lake, accounting for 71.80–80.31%. The temporal and spatial dynamics of green algal blooms were consistent with that of total organic nitrogen (TON), indicating that organic nitrogen may be the key trigger of green algal blooms. Nitrogen and phosphorus were excessive, and the peak of ammonia nitrogen occurred during the blooms, implying that ammonia nitrogen may be one of the important factors stimulating green algal blooms. Spearman correlation analysis and RDA analysis showed that green algae and cyanobacteria were positively correlated with water temperature, TON, and ammonia nitrogen, indicating that they have similar favorable growth conditions in Longhu Lake. Our results indicated that the combined effects of elevated water temperature, excessive nitrogen and phosphorus, non-stratification, and short water retention time could favor the competitive dominance of green algae in Longhu Lake. The findings here improve our understanding of the competition between green algae and cyanobacteria in shallow lakes.

Virome reveals effect of Ulva prolifera green tide on the structural and functional profiles of virus communities in coastal environments

Viruses are widely distributed in marine environments, where they influence the transformation of matter and energy by modulating host metabolism. Driven by eutrophication, green tides are a rising concern in Chinese coastal areas, and are a serious ecological disaster that negatively affects coastal ecosystems and disrupts biogeochemical cycles. Although the composition of bacterial communities in green algae has been investigated, the diversity and roles of viruses in green algal blooms are largely unexplored. Therefore, the diversity, abundance, lifestyle, and metabolic potential of viruses in a natural bloom in Qingdao coastal area were investigated at three different stages (pre-bloom, during-bloom, and post-bloom) by metagenomics analysis. The dsDNA viruses, Siphoviridae, Myoviridae, Podoviridae, and Phycodnaviridae, were found to dominate the viral community. The viral dynamics exhibited distinct temporal patterns across different stages. The composition of the viral community varied during the bloom, especially in populations with low abundance. The lytic cycle was most predominant, and the abundance of lytic viruses increased slightly in the post-bloom stage. The diversity and richness of the viral communities varied distinctly during the green tide, and the post-bloom stage favored viral diversity and richness. The total organic carbon, dissolved oxygen, NO3−, NO2−, PO43−, chlorophyll–a contents, and temperature variably co-influenced the viral communities. The primary hosts included bacteria, algae, and other microplankton. Network analysis revealed the closer links between the viral communities as the bloom progressed. Functional prediction revealed that the viruses possibly influenced the biodegradation of microbial hydrocarbons and carbon by metabolic augmentation via auxiliary metabolic genes. The composition, structure, metabolic potential, and interaction taxonomy of the viromes differed significantly across the different stages of the green tide. The study demonstrated that the ecological event shaped the viral communities during algal bloom, and the viral communities played a significant role in phycospheric microecology.

Genetic diversity of Cladophora oligocladoidea forming a bloom in the coastal area of Korea

Green algal blooms by Cladophora species are primarily reported in freshwater and coastal regions and cause severe ecological problems. A taxonomic report of the geographic distribution of Cladophora blooms is essential to explore the cause and impact of macroalgal blooms and for eco-physiological studies. The identification of blooming species is necessary for monitoring and controlling algal blooms. Genetic information of DNA sequences is useful for identifying species in the genus Cladophora. In the coastal area of Sangrok, Korea, a large-scale Cladophora bloom was reported for the first time in September 2015. In the present study, we identified the taxonomic entity of Cladophora oligocladoidea (Ulvophyceae, Cladophorales) in Korea. We report for the first time a green algal bloom by this species globally. This is the second report about genetic diversity of C. oligocladoidea since the species was established in Japan. Four ribotypes in the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA represent the genetic diversity of Korean C. oligocladoidea. The results from this taxonomic report and our analysis of the green algal bloom of Korean C. oligocladoidea can provide valuable data to understand the geographic distribution and the genetic diversity of the species.

Phytoplankton succession phenology trends in the backwaters of the three gorges reservoir in China and their drivers: Results from satellite observations

Information on long-term phytoplankton phenology trends is critical for clarifying the responses of aquatic ecosystems to environmental perturbations. However, the trends in the phenological metrics of phytoplankton blooms have not yet been comprehensively investigated in river systems with complex hydrodynamic conditions and typical phytoplankton community succession characteristics. Here, we investigated long-term phytoplankton phenology trends in the four typical backwaters of the Three Gorges Reservoir in China as well as the driving factors of these trends between 2009 and 2020 using in situ and satellite observations. The phenological metrics, including the initiation, succession, and termination dates of phytoplankton blooms, were extracted from satellite imagery times series. We found that the phytoplankton bloom and green algal bloom durations have significantly increased, while the durations of cyanobacterial blooms have decreased since 2009. Specifically, the initiation (of cyanobacterial blooms) and first succession (from cyanobacterial blooms to green algal blooms) dates were advanced by 9.75 d and 23.25 d, respectively. However, the second succession (from green algal blooms to cyanobacterial blooms) and termination (of cyanobacterial blooms) dates were delayed by 24.25 d and 13.5 d, respectively. We revealed that air temperature and water level changes were likely responsible for these trends (mean relative contribution = 75.1 ± 6.1 %). These findings provide new insights into regional climatic change and reservoir environmental management and can help researchers address harmful phytoplankton blooms and their associated adverse effects.

A novel qPCR-based method to quantify seven phyla of common algae in freshwater and its application in water sources

The light microscope is widely used to count algae, however, there are some disadvantages associated with this method, such as time consuming and laborious. In this study, a qPCR-based method was established for quantifying seven phyla of common algae in freshwater, including Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta, Euglenophyta, Bacillariophyta, Dinophyta, Cryptophyta, and Chrysophyta. The accuracy of qPCR in estimating algal cells was confirmed by comparing it with the microscopic counting. The qPCR was used to detect the cell concentration of seven phyla of algae in Longhu Reservoir, showing that green algal blooms occurred during the monitoring period. The intensity of algal blooms was further evaluated according to the classification standard, which suggested that the grade of this bloom was mild. An early warning system was proposed to early warn the occurrence of algal blooms in two water sources, Longhu Reservoir and Dongzhang Reservoir. The qPCR method developed in this study could be a useful tool in the monitoring of algae. The early warning system reported here will have important implications for the effective warning of algal blooms.

Nutrient dynamics in a eutrophic blackwater urban lake

Iraola ND, Mallin MA, Cahoon LB, Gamble DW, Zamora PB. 2022. Nutrient dynamics in a eutrophic blackwater urban lake. Lake Reserv Manage. 38:28–46. Greenfield Lake is a eutrophic blackwater urban lake in Wilmington, North Carolina, and in 2014 was declared by the state as impaired waters due to excessive chlorophyll a concentrations. Phytoplankton production is strongly nitrogen (N) limited, and the lake supports filamentous green algal blooms in spring and N-fixing cyanobacteria blooms in summer. To inform future lake restoration efforts, we quantified nutrient loads from 5 perennial streams that drain the highly impervious Greenfield Lake watershed to determine their impact on the lake’s eutrophic state. The 5 streams were sampled monthly from 2016 to 2017 during periods of dry weather and again after rain events of at least 1.2 cm to compare stormwater runoff to baseflow conditions. Two streams alone accounted for 76% of inorganic N and 63% of inorganic P surface inflow, whereas 2 other streams, despite high (53–74%) impervious coverage, had low loading. A lake-wide sediment phosphorus survey also revealed P accumulations mirrored streams of high nutrient load, while low P accumulations were in areas draining streams with large wetland and stormwater treatment areas. Drainage area was positively correlated with nitrate concentration and nitrate and ammonium loading. Unconventionally, percent impervious coverage was negatively correlated with nutrient concentrations and loads; we suspect that the presence of a large golf course in the watershed with the lowest impervious cover was a key driving factor. Our work also demonstrates the significance of catchment features: Drainages with large stormwater retention structures and significant natural wetlands in the lower reaches yielded low nutrient loadings.

Freshwater snail and shrimp differentially affect water turbidity and benthic primary producers

Benthic macroinvertebrates play key roles in shallow aquatic ecosystems and can contribute substantially to aquatic food webs. However, how macroinvertebrates with different behaviors (for example, pertaining to locomotion, foraging and burrowing) impact water quality and primary producers has not been fully explored. Here, we performed two consecutive microcosm experiments to test the effects of (1) macroinvertebrates with different behaviors (a low mobility scraper aquatic snail Bellamya aeruginosa and a high mobility shredder freshwater shrimp Macrobrachium nipponense) and (2) different shrimp biomasses on water clarity and the composition of benthic primary producers. The results showed that presence of snails significantly increased the biomass of filamentous green algae and decreased the biomass of periphyton. In contrast, presence of shrimp significantly decreased the biomass of filamentous green algae and increased the biomass of periphyton, and these effects were biomass dependent. Filamentous green algae disappeared when shrimp biomass reached 9.8 ​g ​m−2. No interactive effects of snail and shrimp presence were found. This could be attributed to different food preferences by the two consumers, with snails preferring periphyton (mainly diatoms) and shrimp preferring filamentous green algae. The presence of snails decreased water turbidity, while shrimp increased water turbidity, which showed a hump-shaped response to shrimp biomass with a peak at 24.2 ​g ​m−2. These results are likely because the snail is a low mobility grazer and can filter suspended particles, while the shrimp is a high mobility shredder with burrows, which can strongly disturb sediment. The decrease in water disturbance at high shrimp biomass might be due to food limitation, thus reducing burrowing and foraging activities. Neither snail nor shrimp affected the biomass of H. verticillata, while the biomass of V. spinulosa increased with shrimp biomass. The reason for this could be that shrimp increased nutrient availability and decreased the growth of filamentous green algae that compete with macrophytes. Our study demonstrated that different macroinvertebrates have complementary functions in benthic habitats; thus, maintaining macroinvertebrate diversity is important for shallow aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, the freshwater shrimp M. nipponense could be a potential consumer to control filamentous green algal blooms in its native range, but their biomass should be taken into consideration.

Hydropyrolysis of freshwater macroalgal bloom for bio-oil and biochar production: Kinetics and isotherm for removal of multiple heavy metals

In this study, hydropyrolysis was carried out using sodium carbonate to convert the green algal bloom into bio-oil, biochar, aqueous solution, and gases. The effect of supercritical conditions (400, 450, 500 °C) on the product yield, bio-oil composition, and structure, and functionalities of the biochar was determined. The high yield of biochar and bio-oil was reported at 400 °C. A significant reduction in bio-oil and increment in hydrocarbon content was reported on the elevation of temperature from 450 °C to 500 °C. After that, kinetic and isotherm analysis was investigated simultaneously to remove four heavy metals viz. Cu(II), Ni(II), Co(II), and Cd(II) from the mixture solution. Results show that kinetics data follow a pseudo-second-order kinetics model and adsorption isotherm is in better agreement with the Langmuir model, not with the Freundlich model. The maximum adsorption capacity was found 10.90, 5.74, 5.80, and 16.28 mg/g with the biochar prepared at 500 °C for Cu(II), Ni(II), Co(II), and Cd(II) metals, respectively. The current investigation provided a promising way for the utilization of freshwater algal bloom biomass for renewable products and simultaneously heavy metal removal from the water.

Changes in the nutrient budget due to physiochemical factors in the coastal area of Jeju, Korea

Lee, T.; Moon, J.-H.; Jung, S.-K.; Park, G.; Kwon, S.; Min, S.-H., and Son, Y.B., 2020. Changes of nutrient budget due to physiochemical factors in the coastal area of Jeju, Korea. In: Malvarez, G. and Navas, F. (eds.), Global Coastal Issues of 2020. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 95, pp. 57–61. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.In Jeju coastal area which is UNESCO biosphere reserve, there has recently been eutrophication and serious changes in the coastal ecosystem such as coastal fishery decline and green algal bloom. A large amount of nutrients that inflow to the coastal area through the discharge of land-based aquaculture farms (LAFs) and submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) are transported by the tidal current. We established representative area of the Jeju coastal area and calculated the nutrients budget of the LAFs, SGD, primary production (PP), and sediment in this study area. The advection-diffusion equation applied to the model was calculated through the passive tracer experiments. The water mass transport in and out of the study area was estimated by modeling, and the nutrient fluxes was calculated by water volume and nutrient concentration. The nutrient released from the aquaculture farms are primarily determined by the reversing tidal currents along the coast of the study area, showing a narrow band of coast, indicating little cross-isobath nutrient exchange between the nearshore and offshore water. The amount of total carbon (TC), dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN), dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP) and dissolved silicon (DSi) influxes into the study area from the LAFs, SGD and offshore were 2,696,282 kg·day-1, 18,823 kg·day-1, 3,395 kg·day-1 and 65,723 kg·day-1, respectively. The amount of TC, TN, TP and Si outfluxes transported from the study area to the offshore, deposited in the sediment and used for PP were 2,696,274 kg·day-1, 18,821 kg·day-1, 3,394 kg·day-1 and 65,721 kg·day-1, respectively. In the study area nutrients are accumulating due to inflows more than outflows. The accumulation rate of TC, DIN, DIP and DSi are 2.29 mg·m-3·day-1, 0.76 mg·m-3·day-1, 0.18 mg·m-3·day-1, 1.06 mg·m-3·day-1, respectively. The coastal area of Jeju is accumulating nutrients, which could increase coastal pollution such as eutrophication, green algal bloom and whitening.

Influence of iron and carbon on the occurrence of Ulva prolifera (Ulvophyceae) in the Yellow Sea

Over the past decade, massive outbreaks of Ulva prolifera have occurred in the Yellow Sea, China, and caused negative effects to the coastal environments. In response, many scientific investigations have been conducted to ascertain the origins of and reasons for the algal bloom that has resulted in continuous green tides. In this work, we explored the influences of iron and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) on the occurrence of green algal blooms. The moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) data showed the blooming areas and movement of U. prolifera. Field observation showed that higher Fe(II) concentrations (average 0.145 mg L−1) can be correlated with large Ulva prolifera blooms. Furthermore, lower pH might enhance the accumulation of dissolved carbon into the green algae; a premise that was supported by higher concentrations of CO2(0.037 mmol L−1), HCO3− (2.58 mmol L−1) and the lowest pH value (7.69) being found together at site H11. The indoor iron- and bicarbonate-enrichment experiments further confirmed that higher concentrations of Fe(II) and HCO3− and a lower pH can increase the growth rate of U. prolifera. This study indicates that seawater chemical factors contribute to the long term, ongoing green tides in the Yellow Sea and provides new thoughts for the causes of U. prolifera blooms.

Reproductive strategy of the floating alga Ulva prolifera in blooms in the Yellow Sea based on a combination of zoid and chromosome analysis

Green algal blooms have occurred in the Yellow Sea for 13 consecutive years since 2007. However, little is known about the reproductive strategy of the dominant species Ulva prolifera in the field. In particular, it is not clear whether the floating Ulva species are sporophytes or gametophytes, and if their life history is sexual or asexual. In this study, the life history type was determined based on the size, phototactic response, and flagella number for the zoids in at least two successive generations. In addition, chromosome observations were conducted to distinguish the gametophytes and sporophytes in the floating Ulva species. The results showed that the floating Ulva species were all sporophytes with sexual reproductive patterns, thereby indicating that this Ulva species always maintains vegetative growth from April to June during the early stage of the blooms. In addition, we found that the chromosome numbers were 18 for the diploid sporophytes and nine for the haploid male and female gametophytes. These results provide useful information to help understand the explosive growth of these green algal blooms.

Remote examination of the seasonal succession of phytoplankton assemblages from time-varying trends

The seasonal succession of phytoplankton assemblages is important to ascertain the dynamics of an aquatic ecosystem structure, whereas its occurrence in response to hydrodynamic alterations is not clearly understood. In view of the characteristics of annual water level variation formed by the Three Gorges Dam Project (TGDP), our understanding about how these changes affect phytoplankton structure and dynamics is still very limited due to the shortage of long-term observation data. In this study, we used Huan Jing 1 charge-coupled device images over the past decade to examine the phytoplankton succession dates between cyanobacterial and green algal blooms in the backwater area of the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR). The results indicated continuous wavelet transform-based peak analysis is an efficiency tool that can illustrate the temporal pattern of phytoplankton succession using satellite-derived chlorophyll ɑ and Cyano-Chlorophyta index thresholds. Water level, air temperature, pH and total nitrogen/total phosphorus ratio were four important factors affecting the decline and rise phase of cyanobacterial blooms in the TGR from 2008 to 2018. Given that the upstream dam operation is likely to alter ecological and environmental conditions in the backwater area, this mechanism, so-called “water-level linkage”, could alleviate the persistent period of cyanobacterial and green algal blooms. Remote sensing together with time series analysis provided a useful method to examine the seasonal succession of phytoplankton assemblages in the TGR, and these findings provided strategic insight for the water-quality management in the post-TGDP period.

Expert assessment as a framing exercise: The controversy over green macroalgal blooms’ proliferation in France

This article contributes to unraveling the 'paradox of scientific authority', that is, the fact that despite the loss of authority of scientific expertise, policymakers still resort to expert advice. Re-examining the role ascribed to expert assessment in the policy-making process in controversial contexts in particular, the article succeeds in demonstrating that one of the crucial roles of expert evaluation is to establish a more compelling definition of the problem to be dealt with by policymakers. Taking the scientific controversy surrounding the proliferation of green algal bloom on Brittany beaches (France) as a case in point, I show that expert assessment conceived as a framing exercise is, however, a two-way process: it is as much about framing for the sake of settling an expert dispute with sound scientific categories than about solving public problems in a sufficiently consensual way, taking into account the distribution of power more generally in society.

Physiological changes of submerged macrophytes in response to a floating filamentous green algae bloom in clear-water conditions

The aim of this study was to evaluate the physiological responses of a submerged macrophyte to a floating filamentous green algal bloom in clear-water conditions. Elodea nuttallii was grown with floating Cladophora sp. at four different levels (0, control; 140, 280, 560 g FW/m(2)) in an outdoor experimental system, and its photosynthetic and antioxidant systems were evaluated. The presence of floating Cladophora sp. significantly changed the water environment by decreasing light intensity and increasing dissolved oxygen and the pH value. The photosynthetic parameters of E. nuttallii (e.g. Delta F/F-m',F-v/F-m, total chlorophyll) were higher in the presence of floating Cladophora sp. than in the control at the beginning of experiment. Because of the increasing dissolved oxygen concentration and pH value, the values of these indicators decreased (except for photosynthetic pigments) during the experiment. Compared with E. nuttallii in the control, E. nuttallii growing in the presence of floating Cladophora sp. showed higher malondialdehyde content, catalase activity, and peroxidase activity. The biomass of E. nuttallii was decreased by about 30% in the presence of high biomasses of floating Cladophora sp. (280 and 560 g FW/m(2)). These results suggest that floating Cladophora had complex effects on the biomass of E. nuttallii and that changes in water quality resulting from floating Cladophora sp. may be more important than its direct shading effect.

Rapid expansion of Ulva blooms in the Yellow Sea, China through sexual reproduction and vegetative growth

Green algal blooms have occurred in the Yellow Sea for 11 consecutive years since 2007. A “seed bank” comprising micro-propagules including gametes, meiospores, and zygotes, played an important role in the rapid formation of a green tide. In the present study, germination differences among zygotes, meiospores, and gametes were examined. The growth ability and maturation period of alternating generations of sexual Ulva prolifera strains were also assessed. The zygote and meiospore germination rate was 91.67% and 80.29%, respectively, approximately three times greater than that of gametes (30%). In addition, the highest daily growth rate of sporophytes and gametophytes was 266.7% and 288.1%, respectively, and the maturation period of sporophytes and gametophytes was 35.7 and 31.3 days, respectively. These results indicate that sexual reproduction and vegetative growth are mainly responsible for the rapid expansion of macroalgal blooms in the Yellow Sea.

Distinguishing two phenotypes of blooms using the normalised difference peak-valley index (NDPI) and Cyano-Chlorophyta index (CCI)

Harmful algal blooms are now widely recognised as a severe threat to freshwater ecosystems, particularly in semi-fluvial environments created by river damming. Given the high spatial and temporal variability of cyanobacterial blooms, remote sensing is more suitable than conventional field surveys in monitoring blooms. However, the majority of existing algorithms cannot distinguish cyanobacterial blooms from eukaryotic algal blooms by extracting spectral features in the remote-sensing reflectance (Rrs). In this study, in situ Rrs spectra of cyanobacterial and green algal blooms in Lakes Gaoyang, Hanfeng and Changshou of the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) in China were recorded. Characteristic spectral indices, namely, the normalised difference peak-valley index and Cyano-Chlorophyta index, were used to develop an algorithm that can effectively distinguish cyanobacterial and green algal blooms. The proposed algorithm was also used to investigate the spatio–temporal dynamics of the two phenotypes of blooms derived from Huan Jing 1 charge-coupled device images. The resulting accuracy of 93.5% demonstrated that remote sensing technology, in conjunction with field observation, could efficiently differentiate bloom-forming species and assess the water quality in the TGR.

Formation of water disinfection byproduct 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone from chlorination of green algae

We report that green algae in lakes and rivers can serve as precursors of halobenzoquinone (HBQ) disinfection byproducts (DBPs) produced during chlorination. Chlorination of a common green alga, Chlorella vulgaris, produced 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone (2,6-DCBQ), the most prevalent HBQ DBP in disinfected water. Under varying pH conditions (pH6.0–9.0), 2,6-DCBQ formation ranged from 0.3 to 2.1μg/mg C with maximum formation at pH8.0. To evaluate the contribution of organic components of C. vulgaris to 2,6-DCBQ formation, we separated the organics into two fractions, the protein-rich fraction of intracellular organic matter (IOM) and the polysaccharide-laden fraction of extracellular organic matter (EOM). Chlorination of IOM and EOM produced 1.4μg/mg C and 0.7μg/mg C of 2,6-DCBQ, respectively. The IOM generated a two-fold higher 2,6-DCBQ formation potential than the EOM fraction, suggesting that proteins are potent 2,6-DCBQ precursors. This was confirmed by the chlorination of proteins extracted from C. vulgaris: the amount of 2,6-DCBQ produced is linearly correlated with the concentration of total algal protein (R2=0.98). These results support that proteins are the primary precursors of 2,6-DCBQ in algae, and control of green algal bloom outbreaks in source waters is important for management of HBQ DBPs.

Impacts of Climate Change on Water Crisis and Formation of Green Algal Blooms in Vietnam

Impacts of Climate Change on Water Crisis and Formation of Green Algal Blooms in Vietnam