Hellenistic Research Articles

Dating an ancient spring tunnel using archaeological artefacts functioning as nuclei of cave pearls

AbstractCave pearls are spherical concentric speleothems growing radially around nuclei in shallow pools saturated with calcite. They are very rare in the Southern Levant. We present a unique assemblage of 50 cave pearls found in the Iron Age Joweizeh artificial spring tunnel in the Jerusalem Hills of Israel. Some of these deposits represent the first global evidence of formation on archaeological artefacts: pottery sherds and ancient plaster. Multi‐analyses were conducted to date and characterize the different nuclei and pearls. Charcoal samples extracted from the plaster nuclei of two pearls were 14C dated to the Hellenistic period. Two pearls were formed on sherds of Hellenistic lamps. XPS found Co colour remains, suggesting both had been imported. The Hellenistic date is also supported by archaeomagnetic dates of seven other pottery nuclei. Most Hellenistic remains are probably the outcome of a renovation campaign in the tunnel. Four pearls were sampled for stable isotopes (δ13C and δ18O). The range of δ18O values from the Joweizeh pearls is compatible with the Holocene Soreq and Jerusalem caves’ records. The δ13C differences between Joweizeh and Soreq indicate local changes in the overlying vegetation throughout history. The various lines of evidence enabled us to characterize the pearls’ formation process, reconstruct the Joweizeh spring tunnel's hydraulic environment and detect changes that occurred in its water flow regime throughout history.

Living by the Clock II: The Diffusion of Clock Time in the Early Hellenistic Period

Summary By the mid-second century BC, and possibly even earlier, clock time was widely known: from Rome to Bactria, from rulers to men of modest means. This is striking, as Greco-Roman clock time was not fully conceptualized until 300 BC. In this article, I aim to explain its rapid diffusion, by examining which groups in society were the first to adopt clock time and how they communicated the concept and its related practices to others. I make use of Everett Rogers’ model of the diffusion of innovations, which identifies various adopter categories and their typical characteristics. I identify two groups of early adopters of clock time. Firstly, there is the cosmopolitan elite at the intellectual hubs Alexandria and Athens. Through the travels and written word of this mobile group, the idea of clocks as prestige monuments and the use of clock time for precisely scheduled parties rapidly gained traction in other urban centers. The more important early adopters were, however, Hellenistic soldiers, in particularly the Ptolemaic cleruchs. Armies already had a tradition of carefully keeping track of time. Because they relied on the direct participation of a considerable portion of the male population, armies had direct ways to communicate usage of this innovation to a wide section of the non-elite population. Via mercenaries, military practices could also easily spread from one Hellenistic army to another. Back at home, the soldiers took their temporal regimes to (among other places) the gymnasia, which played an important role in teaching the artificial concept of clock time to the next generations.

Long-Term Settlement Dynamics in Ancient Macedonia: A New Multi-Disciplinary Survey from Grevena (NW Greece)

This paper discusses the evolution of human settlement in ancient Macedonia from the Neolithic to the Late Roman periods, based on the results of a new multi-disciplinary and multi-scale archaeological survey in northern Grevena (NW Greece). Building upon an unpublished (legacy) survey, we developed a GIS-structured workflow that integrates site-revisiting and surveying strategies (material collection and test pits) with multi-temporal remote-sensing analyses, offering analytical information about site distribution, characterisation, dating, and taphonomy. Notably, the new study led to a 64% increase in the number of known sites. The combined results indicate that prehistory is less represented in the surface record than historical periods, likely due to the impact of soil erosion episodes. The Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age saw increased site numbers and the emergence of a settlement structure that characterised the area until the Hellenistic period. During the Roman period, the pattern shifted from a seemingly limited use of the landscape towards a model of more extensive habitation. This was driven by the appearance of new rural sites that introduced a land-use regime designed to support agricultural intensification by implementing anti-erosion measures, such as field terraces.

Women as cultural agents: Double coloniality, gender and diasporic memories of ethnic Greek Georgian women

In 2021, the world commemorated the 30th anniversary of the end of the Cold War, a half-century of ideological rivalry and divisions that left few societies untouched. ‘Cold War state of mind’, as the title of the book of Matthew Dune stated, with the primacy it gave to nation-states, overlooked issues of not belonging in dominant majorities and hegemonic cultures, for example, ethnic minorities and diasporas. In this framework, Greek-speaking communities in the former Soviet Union seemed to draw from their cultural background to become rooted in the Soviet ethnic mosaic but also to increase their social capital which in the 1990s turned to an important transnational value due to the migrant flows from Georgia to Greece. This article follows the life stories of two ethnic Greek women over the time of three decades through their memories since the 1980s, from the Black Sea region to Greece, to discuss how they address the post-socialist demand for an integration to the free market and how their double coloniality as Soviet and diasporic subjects interweaves with this demand.

Историческая значимость деятельности Иоанна Каподистрии в решении греческого вопроса в первой половине XIX века

The article examines the activities of Ioannis Kapodistrias as an eminent politician and diplomat in the history of Russia and Greece. It analyzes Kapodistrias’ contributions to the national liberation struggle of the Greek people for independence from Ottoman domination. The role of Russia in facilitating Greece’s path to independence is highlighted, alongside an exploration of the leaders of the Greek national liberation movement. The significance of Orthodox faith, indigenous traditions, and culture for the Greek people is also addressed. The research underscores the pivotal role of Ioannis Kapodistrias in fostering relations between the peoples of Greece and Russia, grounded in their shared Orthodox faith and the institution of the Orthodox Church. An examination of archival data, scholarly works, historical literature, and the statements of high-ranking officials from the Russian Federation provides essential groundwork for further study of the personality of Ioannis Kapodistrias, as well as the application of his experiences and insights in the modern geopolitical conjuncture.

Through the history of the acoustic response within the theatre of Taormina: From Greek and Roman periods to our days

The ancient theatre of Taormina is considered one of the most beautiful attractions of this town. Built on top of a cliff over the Mediterranean Sea, the spectators remain captured by the suggestions that this performance arts space can still inspire. Finished to be erected in the 3rd century BC, the theatre in Hellenistic period was provided with a small temple on the top centre of the cavea. Modified by Romans based on their requirements for spectacles, the organization of this ancient theatre was amplified with the creation of a double porticus supported by a columnade, and with the extension of the scenic building. After its desuse, some construction elements of the theatre were utilized to build new structures in town, provoking significant damage to the original shape. The spectacles that nowadays are conducted within the ancient theatre are many, executed especially over summer seasons. Acoustic measurements have been carried out inside the theatre to understand the acoustic response of the existing conditions. Starting from this scenario, the values of the main acoustic parameters have been compared with the digital reconstruction of the building at the Greek and Roman period. This research study highlights the difference in the acoustic response between these two scenarios and the existing conditions, and how the acoustics during the Roman period was the most suitable for musical performances.

The Princely Burials of the Central Balkans in Context

Despite a consensus that the Late Hallstatt ‘princely’ burials heralded the emergence of the earliest complex societies in the central Balkans, there is room for nuance. In this article, the ‘princely’ burial horizon is examined in light of the opposition between group-oriented and individualizing societies, while accepting that burials are as much an ideological statement as a reflection of social structure. On this theoretical basis, the author presents a study of two groups of ‘princely’ burials in North Macedonia and Bosnia in relation to contemporary and later burials, and with reference to settlement size in the Late Hallstatt and Classical–Hellenistic period. His analysis reveals that the inequality in burial assemblages of the Late Hallstatt ‘princely’ burial horizon decreases in the mortuary record of the fifth–fourth century bc, whereas the settlement size in the Classical–Early Hellenistic suggests emerging differentiation.

Miracles of Technology and Art: Ancient Religious Aesthetics and Byzantine Iconoclasm

This article explores the role of technology in arousing religious awe from classical antiquity to the time of Emperor Theophilos. People’s fascination with technology ensured that this trend, increasingly popular in Greco-Roman religious festivals from the Hellenistic period onwards, gained pace among Christians after an initial period of rejecting pagan religious aesthetics. Technology was highly prised by both pagan and Christian rulers who typically sought to impress their subjects by displaying the technology available at their disposal. However, while the emperors’ reliance on technology to allude to divine favour was tolerated, technology employed to stage miracles or influence faith was deeply harmful for Christianity. Theophilos’ father is reported by Eutychius to have punished paradigmatically the mastermind of one such mechanically enabled miracle in his native Phrygia. Thus, Theophilos’ iconoclastic views as well as his known obsession with automata are explored as part of a longstanding debate on Christian religious aesthetics.

Women's Dress in the Ancient Greek World (L.) Llewellyn-Jones (ed.) Pp. 276. Cardiff: Classical Press of Wales, 2023. Paper, £17.50. ISBN: 9781914535369

Women's Dress in the Ancient Greek World (L.) Llewellyn-Jones (ed.) Pp. 276. Cardiff: Classical Press of Wales, 2023. Paper, £17.50. ISBN: 9781914535369

Women on the Move: Prostitution on Syros and Corfu in the Nineteenth Century

Abstract: Governments across Europe began to implement systems of state-regulated female prostitution during the nineteenth century. Starting in the 1830s, authorities in British-protected Corfu and Greek Syros marshaled the bureaucracy of the modern state to protect public health—both biologically and morally—from the so-called public woman. Women working as prostitutes on both islands were registered with local authorities, inspected regularly, and hospitalized at the discretion of police and health inspectors. Despite moral and legal prescriptions, prostitution in the Greek world was a highly permeable trade. These women, who came from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds, not only moved into and out of prostitution but also traversed the changing political boundaries of the eastern Mediterranean, living and working among its various port cities. Indeed they were a central component of a transforming yet still integrated region, demonstrating the persistence of a connected Mediterranean world from the early modern into the modern period.

Greek history

The new paradigm of ancient economic history that has dominated the last twenty years is based on New Institutional Economics; its key concepts are growth and transaction costs. It has succeeded in proving that the ancient economies were not static and in documenting the significance of ancient markets; but by excising labour, slavery, and exploitation from discussion, the conceptual limits of this paradigm are becoming apparent to more and more people. The volume edited by John Weisweiler on debt in the ancient Mediterranean and Near East is solid evidence that an alternative, non-neoliberal, paradigm is currently in the process of formation.1 The book is obviously an attempt to assess the validity of David Graeber's blockbuster book on debt for the study of ancient economic and social history.2 As with the volume on citizenship presented below, the fact that this collection of twelve essays ranges temporally from the archaic period to the early middle ages and includes Greek, Roman, and Near Eastern societies is an excellent illustration of a growing and encouraging trend in our discipline. This is a highly stimulating volume. The essays explore: the nexus between coinage, slavery, and warfare in various ancient societies; how quantified social obligations colonized various social, political, and intellectual fields; and whether Graeber's concept of the Axial Age is valuable for the study of ancient history. Perhaps unsurprisingly, Graeber's model seems to fit best the world of ancient empires (Roman, late Roman, and Sassanian), but seems to make less sense for the world of Greek poleis. This illustrates, yet again, the need for Greek historians to think seriously about the peculiarities of the Greek world and the appropriate comparisons.

Hellenistic Period Watchtowers and Hillside Settlements Identified in “Vezirköprü” Surveys

Vezirköprü, one of the largest districts of Samsun (Amisos), an important port city of the Black Sea, has been the scene of continuous settlement from the Eneolithic Period to the present day thanks to its fertile soils, rivers and its location on an important road. The district, which first appears as a village settlement under the name Phazemon in Strabo, became a city in the Roman Period and was named Neoklaudiopolis. The city called Andrapa in the Byzantine Period took the name Vezirköprü in the Turkish Period and has survived to the present day. The city has witnessed many struggles in this process, including the struggle of the Pontic Kingdom and the Roman Empire. The greatest witnesses of these events were undoubtedly castles and watchtowers. The most famous of these is the Sagylion Castle, localized to Büyükkale in Vezirköprü, which is also mentioned in Strabo. Located on the foothills of Tavşan Mountain, the castle appears to be a typical Mithradates castle due to its location and structures. Although these fortresses built in the region were one of the greatest weapons used by Mithradates Eupator VI against the expansionist policies of the Romans, it is understood that these fortresses were not used on their own but supported by watchtowers selected at the dominant points of the land. Although many fortresses in the Pontos Region have been researched, and some have been excavated, watchtowers have not been sufficiently investigated. This study aimed to shed light on the Hellenistic Period of Vezirköprü by introducing the watchtowers identified during the surveys and the hillside settlements built around them.

Mosaic Technology in the Armenian Chapel Birds Mosaic, Jerusalem: Characterizing the Polychrome Hidden Sinopia

Since the Hellenistic period, preparatory drawings known as sinopiae were employed as guidelines for mosaicists in creating mosaics. The sinopiae served as the basis for style and content, facilitating the placement of colored tesserae in the supporting mortar. The technology of the mosaic and pigments used reflect the capacity of the mosaic workshop and its master. This work explores a polychrome sinopia that was found under a Byzantine mosaic of an Armenian Chapel in Jerusalem, by a multi-analytical characterization of mineralogical and chemical properties. The composition of the pigments in the black and red areas of the sinopia include carbon black and red ochre, respectively, utilized in the fresco technique. Since colored tesserae are placed in wet mortar, it can be deduced that mosaicists worked together with painters during the executionary steps. This has corresponding implications for historical and artistic specializations at mosaic workshops, with deeper understanding of mosaic production processes. This research also highlights the importance of studying sinopiae under floor mosaics, which is a source of information on the pigments, paintings techniques, and the people who executed the work, all embedded in mortar which is well protected below the stone tesserae.

The Role of Incubation in Ancient Greek Asklepieions

The sanctuaries of Asklepios served a healing function in the Greek world throughout antiquity. In modern historiography, it is believed that the sick were treated there by incubation, i.e., sleeping in the temple to obtain a divinatory dream. However, the sources are not clear on this matter. In this article, I analyse four sources that, in my opinion, are the most representative of the issue of treatment methods in the Asklepieions. From the classical period, inscriptions describing healings from Epidauros and the comedy "Wealth" by Aristophanes are extremely important, while from Roman times they include "The Sacred Tales" by Aelius Aristides and the Apellas’ inscription from Epidauros. It is significant that none of these sources describes the incubation ritual, and the treatment methods presented in them are rational from the viewpoint of contemporary medicine. Incubation was practiced in the Asklepieions, but its role, in my opinion, was much smaller than commonly believed.

Building Resilience through Territorial Planning: Water Management Infrastructure and Settlement Design in the Coastal Wetlands of Northern Apulia (Salpia vetus-Salapia) from the Hellenistic Period to Late Antiquity

This Gulf of Manfredonia has, for millennia, been the primary water feature of the coastal wetland of Northern Apulia, Italy, although modern reclamation works make writing its long-term history challenging. Our recent paleoenvironmental research has reconstructed the evolution of the southern half of this lagoon since the Neolithic period. Here, we write a history of water management and environmental change in this landscape from the perspective of two key urban sites: pre-Roman Salpia vetus and Roman Salapia. The Roman architectural historian Vitruvius recounts the abandonment of Salpia vetus and the refoundation of Salapia. We employ his narrative as a frame for a more complex environmental history, starting from a historiography of this landscape’s study and a summary of our interdisciplinary research agenda, which unifies environmental, topographical, remote sensing, and archaeological approaches. Resilience in this changeable wetland environment was only possible through an integrated and intentional management of water among rivers, the lagoon, and the Adriatic Sea. While Salpia vetus exploited this wetland and thrived for centuries, the settlement eventually collapsed due to human and environmentally impelled factors. Roman Salapia subsequently emerged with a different approach, new infrastructure, and a new location. This blueprint would sustain urban life in this wetland for six centuries and lay the groundwork for the Medieval town.

Three New Inscriptions from Cibyra

The aim of this article is to introduce three newly discovered inscriptions from Cibyra, an ancient city located within the borders of Burdur Province, Türkiye. These inscriptions were found during excavations in the area known as Agora Teras I. Several inscriptions, particularly from the Hellenistic period, are present on the wall of the Agora. Two of the inscriptions presented here (nos. 1 and 3) were also found on this wall. The first inscription (no. 1) is an honorary inscription dedicated to a priest of Apollo, dated to the third century AD. The second inscription (no. 2) is a graffito, an acclamation carved on a column belonging to the stoa. Lastly, the third is a fragment of a votive inscription addressed to Zeus Soter. Both Zeus Soter and Apollo were prominent deities in Cibyra. The worship of Apollo in Cibyra is known from literary sources dating back to the Hellenistic period, while Zeus Soter appears in Cibyra from the second quarter of the first century AD. These two deities also feature on coins minted in Cibyra. Additionally, for the first time, the goddess Tyche is attested alone. According to the graffito, she was invoked to bring abundance to a shop.

Lysander, Serapis and the School of Theophrastus

The aim of this article is to draw attention to two stories found in the works of Plutarch. These are Lysander’s last efforts to obtain oracles and overthrow the Spartan Constitution and the Sinopic tradition about the aetiological myth of the introduction of Sarapis’ cult in Alexandria. There are several common points between the two: Plutarch, kingship, the young boy and his divine paternity, the Black Sea area, the travel by sea, Delphi, Apollo and oracles. After analyzing and comparing these common points, we argue for a shared cultural background in the early Hellenistic period. This background consists of the work of a historian and a philosopher of this period, Theophrastus, the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic School. Plutarch mentions that the story he narrated in Lysander’s Life about the admiral’s last effort to obtain oracles from Delphi and to make a change in the Spartan constitution by introducing the election of the king from thearistoi goes back to a philosopher and historian. We know that he considered Theophrastus to be both a philosopher and a historian. The most famous pupil of Theophrastus, Demetrius of Phaleron, moved to Alexandria after 307 BC, became a worshipper of Serapis and wrote books about Serapis. Other students of Theophrastus were also great worshippers of this newly created god. This combined evidence permits us to advance the hypothesis that the story of Lysander served as a model for the construction of the Sinopic tradition about the introduction of Serapis’ cult in early Ptolemaic Egypt.

The God of Earthquakes: Several Hypotheses Related to One Dedicatory Inscription to Poseidon Asphaleios From Mesambria on Pontus

This article aims to present to the scientific community a dedicative inscription to the God Poseidon in his capacity as Asphaleios -Securer, embedded in one of the churches in Nessebar (Bulgaria)–St. Paraskeva Church. The inscription was found in 2013 during conservation-restoration works in the church. It is published for the first time here, and comments have been made on its connection with earthquakes and seaquakes in Southeastern Europe during so-called Hellenistic Period. The inscription is in the Doric dialect in four lines built in as a spolium on a recess above the altar apse on the church’s southern side in an upside-down position. Based on specific features of palaeography and orthography of the letters, the suggested dating is the second half of the 3rd and the beginning of the 2nd century BC. The epithet of the god in this inscription–Asphaleios is attested in other Dorian poleis; however, here, it cannot be connected with a temple to Poseidon. It was probably brought to Mesambria on Pontus from somewhere else; as exemplified with similar inscriptions originating from Kallatis (present-day Mangalia, Romania) and Dionysopolis (present-day Balchik, Bulgaria). The epiklesis in the mentioned inscriptions hints at the consequences of the seismic activity during the period comprising roughly the second quarter to the middle of the 3rd century BC that swept across Southeastern Europe and caused severe damage. Therefore, this inscription is another example of Poseidon being worshipped in his capacity of Securer and Earth-Stayer and being recognized as a symbol of hope for ancient people.

The Opinio Juris and Opinio Moris in the Anglo-American Interventions During the Greek Civil War: An Archival Study of Legal Narratives

Abstract This article investigates the British and American interventions in Greece during the Greek Civil War, examining their legal and moral justifications. Using archival documents, the study uncovers two primary layers of discourse: the official diplomatic language of opinio juris (conviction of legality) and opinio moris (conviction of morality), alongside the covert political interests that drove these interventions. The research argues that British and American actions were primarily motivated by a ‘conviction of interest,’ with legal and moral narratives used tactically to justify their interventions. The archival materials reveal a notable lack of empathy and understanding from British and American officials regarding the trauma endured by the Greek populace due to the German occupation and collaborationist violence. Additionally, there was a significant neglect of the will of the Greek people. The study critically examines the Caserta and Civil Affairs Agreements, which provided a legal basis for British intervention, arguing that these agreements, when viewed in light of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, fail to justify the extent of foreign interference, thus questioning the authenticity of Greek consent. The article also explores the transition from British to American dominance in Greek affairs. As Britain faced economic constraints after the end of WWII, it ceded its role to the U.S., leading to the formulation of the Truman Doctrine and the implementation of the Marshall Plan. The U.S. intervention is analyzed through legal and geopolitical lenses, revealing a strategic focus on preventing communist expansion rather than providing purely legal or moral support for Greece’s recovery. Similar to British actions, American involvement often overlooked the political situation and the will of the Greek people, thereby contributing to prolonged instability.

Rocky Landscape of Gerdekkaya: An overview of the survey project in Çorum Alaca Region

The architectural elements and structure traces located on the rocky landscape, alongside the rock-cut tombs and the extensive illegal excavation activities causing damage, indicate the presence of a significant settlement in Gerdekkaya awaiting archaeological discovery. The settlement of Gerdekkaya can be identified as a fortification settlement from the Hellenistic period. New data regarding Gerdekkaya within the framework of rocky landscape is explored. The settlement, inhabited during multiple periods, was within the boundaries of the Mithradatic Kingdom's geography in antiquity and situated between the Mithradatids and its neighbor Galatia. This study involves the identification and interpretation of the currently available archaeological data from Gerdekkaya. It provides the first information about this settlement, located in the southwestern direction of the Mithradatic Kingdom's geography, referred to in modern literature as terra incognita, or unknown lands. Considering the fortress’s characteristics and location, this study defines an important fortification settlement in Gerdekkaya that will provide data for the Central Black Sea Region’s archaeology. It also offers guiding information for future planned excavations. In this context, information was gathered through archaeological survey and geological prospection