Greek Prefectures Research Articles

Suburban fertility and the role of local contexts in a Mediterranean country: A spatial exercise

Assuming spatial fertility as contextual to the development stage of a given region, this study formulates an interpretative framework integrating small-scale fertility variations with metropolitan cycles and economic downturns. Using spatial econometrics, spatial trends in a gross fertility rate were investigated along a sequence of economic expansions and recessions, distinguishing urban, suburban, and rural settlements in 51 Greek prefectures. Suburban fertility overpassed urban fertility, being in turn higher than rural fertility in several prefectures. Urban fertility was higher with economic expansion and declined with recession. The reverse pattern was observed for suburban fertility – increasing with crisis and assuming a greater spatial heterogeneity. By documenting a differential response of fertility to economic downturns and metropolitan cycles, our work suggests that spatial fertility divides are temporary outcomes of a specific ensemble of socioeconomic forces underlying regional growth.

Phylogenetic diversity of Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis isolates causing bacterial canker of tomato in Greece

Tomato bacterial canker, caused by Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis (Cmm) (Li et al. 2018), is a common destructive disease worldwide. The bacterium colonizes plant’s vascular system causing characteristic symptoms such as wilting, cankers, brown and black discoloration of vessels, white spots on the fruit and leaves. In the present work, isolates were collected from infected tomato plants of 11 Greek Prefectures during the years 2003-2018, and the genetic variability was investigated. After initial identification, 93 selected Cmm strains were subjected to phylogenetic analyses based on the sequencing of multiple loci (Multi-Locus Sequencing Analysis, MLSA) utilizing four housekeeping genes (atpD, ppk, kdpA and sdhA). MLSA highlighted 4.1% variability in nucleotide sequences and classified the 93 Cmm strains into 38 haplotypes. Nevertheless, the phylogenetic grouping of the strains was not in accordance with the geographical distribution, a fact that probably advocates the introduction of the disease from infected propagating material. However, strains isolated from the same area in a different year were placed in the same group which means that the pathogen can remain active between growing seasons. The study provides important epidemiological information on the disease outbreaks and the spread of Cmm in Greece.

Demographic Change and the Urban–Rural Divide: Understanding the Role of Density and Agglomeration in Fertility Transitions

Assuming fertility variations across urban–rural gradients, our study focuses on the traditional polarization in urban and rural fertility, offering a refined interpretation of demographic processes associated with population density. More specifically, we tested the intimate relationship between local fertility and population density, comparing the outcomes of a classical urban–rural model (reflecting a linear relationship between the two variables) with those of a more complex quadratic model (implying the so-called ‘suburban fertility hypothesis’) in Greece. We considered fertility dynamics in three districts (urban, suburban, and rural) of 51 Greek prefectures for the last two decades (2000–2009 and 2010–2019) and controlled for the diverging impact of local contexts at different population density levels. Taken as a measure of ‘maturity’ of regional systems, urban fertility surpassed rural fertility in almost all prefectures of Greece. An additional sign of maturity in metropolitan systems indicates that suburban birth rates are higher than urban birth rates in prefectures with high population density (Athens, Thessaloniki, Heraklion, and Patras). The regression outcomes document a specific response of fertility to regional development, evidencing a spatially differentiated shift from classical urban–rural disparities toward a more complex model with the emergence of suburban poles. From this perspective, fertility divides reflect the evolutions of socioeconomic forces (more or less rapidly) along the urban gradient.

Housing markets, the great crisis, and metropolitan gradients: Insights from Greece, 2000–2014

Multifaceted social processes have shaped long-term economic dynamics in Europe with apparent spatial outcomes. The construction sector has been one of the industries with the most evident (crisis-driven) change in Greece, likely the most affected country in Europe. With the aim at providing a comprehensive knowledge of short-term dynamics in real estate local markets, the present study investigates spatial variations in the value of new dwellings at 54 Greek prefectures over sequential economic downturns (2000–2014). Supplemented with contextual indicators, an exploratory framework based on non-parametric correlations, multivariate statistics, and spatial regressions, was run to identify geographical patterns in the average dwelling value characteristic of economic expansion (2000–2007) and recession (2007–2014). The average value of new dwellings per surface area increased in a spatially heterogeneous fashion across Greece, with significant differences between the two time intervals. With economic expansion, the highest values of new dwellings were more likely observed in dynamic districts with agglomeration economies, upper socioeconomic functions, and transport accessibility. With recession, the spatial distribution of dwelling values was more heterogeneous and decoupled from the socioeconomic profile of local contexts, with the highest growth rate recorded in accessible rural districts and coastal areas - including islands. Spatial changes in the average dwelling value reflect the (evolving) geography of economic performance and wealth accumulation in Greece. A comprehensive investigation of the role of economic downturns shaping dwelling values over space provides the appropriate background to inform post-crisis development measures.

Democratic Administration and Commitment of Members of Agricultural Cooperatives: A Case Study from a Prefecture in Greece

Cooperatives are democratic organizations, governed and controlled by their members, who are actively involved in their policy-making and decision-making process. The aim of this paper is to investigate the correlation between cooperative culture and the way that cooperatives are governed. To this end, a probability sampling method is used in the agricultural cooperatives of the Greek prefecture of Larissa, which is one of the most powerful and dynamic in the agricultural economy. The data collection was carried out to 100 members of agricultural cooperatives through the use of a closed-ended questionnaire. The findings highlighted that agricultural cooperatives are distinguished for their increased level of cooperative culture and commitment, provided that the conditions for the democratic governance of cooperatives are met. The role played by the level of education of the members of the agricultural cooperatives was also important, thus confirming the main purpose of the research, which was none other than to prove this correlation. Finally, this correlation can lead to the improvement of certain elements which contribute to the optimization of agricultural governance.

A modeling methodology to predict the generation of wasted plastic pesticide containers: An application to Greece.

Plant protection products (pesticides) are used throughout the world in the form of various types, such as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides etc. High Density Polyethylene is the principal material that those containers are made of. The aim of the study was to determine the factors that statistically affect the generation of the resulting wasted plastic pesticide containers after pesticide application. The objective was to develop a mathematical model to describe the generation rate of wasted plastic pesticide containers as a function of certain parameters. 603 data series were recorded based on information from 106 farmers in Greece and nineteen (19) parameters were initially included as potential predictors. Each farmer filled up questionnaires and provided data for more than one type of crops. Data were obtained from six Greek prefectures. Empirical models were developed for all pesticides through linear regression. The cultivated area (m2), the type of crop (perennial/annual, irrigated/dry) and the type of pesticide application (on soil, on foliage) were the statistically significant parameters to affect generation rates. Eighteen (18) farmers provided 56 (new) observations to validate the models. Two of the four models are reliable due to their low validation errors and should be ideally used for crop areas above 58,000m2. The total wasted plastic pesticide containers generation rate in Greece was estimated to be 0.028kg farmer-1 y-1 1000m-2. Modeling results can aid to predict the generation rate of wasted pesticide plastic containers at a regional and national level so that to properly design their management systems.

An Investigation of Factors Determining the Tourism Attractiveness of Greece’s Prefectures

The contribution of tourism to the local economy has proved particularly significant and led many researchers to study this multidimensional phenomenon. It is therefore appropriate to identify and analyze factors affecting tourism attractiveness, to propose the necessary policies. Since tourism plays an increasingly important role in the Greek economy, this manuscript aims to assess the tourism attractiveness of the Greek prefectures of foreign and domestic visitors. This is achieved by applying multiple linear regression and building on studentized deleted residuals and the diagnostics variables of leverage values and Cook’s distance. Prefectures with an unusual combination of values and prefectures that may have a high impact on the regression models are determined in accordance with the methodology. Overnight stays were used as the dependent variables, and measurable variables affecting tourist attractiveness were used as independent variables, according to international literature. At the end, the manuscript shows that there are major differences as regards tourism attractiveness at the level of Greek prefectures and highlights the need for developing strong policies and practices, with a view of improving regional tourism competitiveness.

Sero-epidemiology investigation of Coxiella burnetii in domestic ruminants throughout most Greek regions.

Q fever is not considered as a public health problem in Greece where most regions are considered as Coxiella burnetii free possibly because of the low interest for this agent. Our objective was to conduct a large‐scale study to investigate the sero‐epidemiology of C. burnetii in domestic ruminants throughout the most of Greek regions. We tested serum samples obtained from goats, sheep and bovines from different regions of Greece. All sera were tested for C. burnetii IgG antibodies by a commercial ELISA according to the manufacturer's recommendations. We tested 1,173 goats and sheep obtained from 177 different herds and totally 194 (17%) animals from 78 (44%) herds were positive for C. burnetii. Positive animals were present in seven (88%) different regions and seropositivity varied widely among these regions. The highest percentage was observed in Peloponnese (44%), where all the tested herds presented animals with C. burnetii antibodies. Ιn all Aegean Islands except the island of Limnos we detected goats and sheep positive for C. burnetii with seroposivity varying between 2% in Kos to 37% in Rhodes. Finally, in 22 (85%) Greek prefectures we found C. burnetii IgG‐positive animals whereas in 14 (54%) prefectures more than 50% of tested herds had seropositive animals. We also tested 28 cows from five different herds in Macedonia and Aegean Islands and six (21%) of them, obtained from two (40%) herds were positive. Considering the importance of C. burnetii for public health, our data reflect the lack of awareness by veterinarians, physicians and competent authorities as we provide evidence of C. burnetii seropositivity in productive animals throughout the most of Greek territories. Due to the increased risk of inhalation of the bacterium by people who entered the affected farms we raise the question of Q fever emergence in Greece.

Teachers' perceptions of integrating kindergarten and first-grade primary school language curricula

The purpose of this research paper is to investigate the perceptions of kindergarten teachers and first-grade primary school teachers on the integration of kindergarten and first-grade of primary school language curricula. This research is part of a broader study of the relation between natural/early and conventional/school literacy, the teachers' perceptions of the possibility of integration of language curricula, as well as practices resulting from the study of curricula. The data were collected through a questionnaire sample of 326 kindergarten teachers and 306 teachers who were teaching at the time of this study the first-grade of primary school in two Greek prefectures. Research data has shown that first-grade teachers appear to be more positive than kindergarten teachers towards integrating the two curricula. Both kindergarten teachers and first-grade teachers seem to partially agree with the creation of a curriculum with common goals and objectives. Nevertheless kindergarten teachers appear more hesitant, expressing their concerns and fears of a potential “schoolarization” of the kindergarten.

How Does a Policymaker Rank Regional Income Distributions across Years? A Study on the Evolution of Greek Regional per Capita Income

This study examines the evolution of the regional per capita income from the perspective of a policymaker at the national level. To do that, it utilizes stochastic dominance analysis by including a utility function that expresses the “regional inequalities aversion” level of the policymaker. In this way, the analysis indicates how the policymakers rank income distributions according to their primary policy objectives and more specifically, GDP growth and diminishing of income inequalities. Data refer to the per capita GDPs of the Greek prefectures during the period 2000–2017, in real terms. The estimation of certainty equivalents provides a numeric index of preference among regional income distributions according to the policy objectives mix. Results indicate that the period 2000–2017 is characterized by different patterns of regional income evolutions. Overall, there is no regional convergence from year 2000 to 2017, while the evolution of regional income does not follow a constant path. The analysis provides thoughtful insights into the way that different policy targets and preferences can affect the relevant ranking of income distributions. In a certain level of policymakers’ “regional inequalities aversion”, a balance between economic growth and diminishing of regional inequalities targets is assumed. Apart from a useful tool in economic research, this quantification approach can also be utilized in policy design for setting more appropriate policy targets, based on the preferences of policymakers at the national level.

The ‘urban–rural divide’ at question: exploring the long-term shift of marital age in Greece

While marital age is the highest worldwide, spatial disparities still exist among European regions. Although Mediterranean societies were traditionally characterized by high propensity to marriage, mean age at marriage in recent times has converged to particularly high levels typical of Western and Northern Europe. Since a spatially explicit analysis of nuptiality patterns is relatively scarce for Southern European countries, the present study investigates marriage timing in 51 Greek prefectures, assuming changes in the local context as a factor leading to marriage postponement. A positive trend in the age at marriage was observed in Greek prefectures between 1980 and 2017. While differences in the mean age at marriage diverged substantially between rural areas and urban contexts in the early 1980s, social factors leading to differentiated patterns of marriage postponement caused a greater spatial heterogeneity in marriage timing in more recent times. Results of this study outline the importance of local contexts shaping social attitudes and behaviors toward marriage. Increasingly complex demographic processes were observed along the urban–rural gradient, whose investigation requires more integrated approaches focusing on population patterns at both micro- and macro-scale.

Factors of Tax Evasion in Greece: Taxpayers’ Perspective

The aim of this study is to analyze the causes (criteria and sub-criteria) of tax evasion in contemporary Greece. Within the framework of the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) methodology, the research questions this study seeks to address are as follows: what drives people to avoid or evade taxes? What is the significance of each criterion and sub-criterion and how can they be ranked? The questionnaire survey covered 2,789 respondents (business owners, accountants and tax officers) from 26 Greek prefectures. The main objective of the AHP analysis is to classify the alternatives by making pairwise comparisons of qualitative and/or quantitative criteria (and sub-criteria) based on experts’ judgements. The results showed that excessive taxation and impunity for tax evasion are considered to be the main reasons for tax evasion in Greece. Among other significant factors are complexity of the legislation and opacity in public financial management. At the same time respondents did not consider deficient education as a significant factor. We also found differences in respondents’ evaluations of the sub-criteria: for instance, businessmen and tax officers disagreed about the significance of such factors as the unfair tax scale and corruption among tax collectors. The results reveal the mutual lack of trust between taxpayers and tax authorities in Greece. The Greek government is required to ensure justice and stability of the tax system; lower the tax rates; and introduce heavier penalties for tax evaders. Moreover, the system of public financial management should become more transparent to foster taxpayers’ trust and thus encourage tax compliance. For citation Diakomihalis M. Factors of Tax Evasion in Greece: Taxpayers’ Perspective. Journal of Tax Reform. 2020;6(2):180–195. DOI: 10.15826/jtr.2020.6.2.081. Article info Received May 14, 2020; Revised May 22, 2020; Accepted June 14, 2020

The Self-Concept in Specific Areas of Students attending Multigrade and Single Grade Elementary Schools. Comparative Approach

The aim of this study was to investigate self-concept in specific areas of students attending multigrade and single grade primary schools. The sample of the survey consisted of 698 pupils, aged between 11 and 12 years old, having no socioeconomic differences. All students were enrolled in multigrade and single grade primary schools of six Greek prefectures. The participants completed the ΄Student Self-Concept Scale΄ of Gresham, Elliott & Evans-Fernandez, (1993). The method for the selection of participants was based on the layered and block random sampling. The results of the survey showed that students attending multigrade schools have no significant differences, at least in most areas of their self-concept (academic skills and emotional behavior) nor in self-esteem (athletic performance, physical appearance, popularity), compared to peers of single grade schools. Furthermore, the social development of students in multigrade schools is not only incomplete but greater compared to the one of single grade schools. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.17.12.7

Tourism–growth nexus and spatial spillovers: Evidence from Greece

In this research note, we reconsider the tourism–growth nexus by accounting for spillover effects between regional tourism development and regional economic growth. For this purpose, we utilize spatial panel econometric techniques to measure the above effects in 49 Greek prefectures during the period 2010–2014. Our findings indicate strong short-run and long-run spillover effects, suggesting that policymakers should consider regional tourism development as a key factor for boosting national economic growth.

The Technical Efficiency of High Schools: The Case of a Greek Prefecture

Scarce human and fiscal resources of high value are spent in the field of education. Thus, the concept of efficiency, and particularly technical efficiency, that refers to the maximization of outputs at a given set of inputs, can be a possible contribution to the design of education policy and administration; mostly at a time of economic crisis as this in Greece, research could assist in formulating proposals on how resources are actually used within education structures/services, as well as in providing guidance to those responsible for the internal allocation of funds so as to secure greater educational results and benefits. The aim of this study is to measure the degree of technical efficiency of the 23 High Schools (Lyceums) in the Prefecture of Fthiotida in Greece, using the model of Data Envelopment Analysis and explore the factors that could interrelate with these measurements. The results provide evidence that a low percentage of school units (34.8%) achieves maximum technical efficiency. Proposals for improving the technical efficiency of the specific schools are also made.

Population growth and the economic crisis: understanding latent patterns of change in Greece, 2002–2016

Recent population dynamics in Europe have been influenced by multifaceted processes, including the second demographic transition, international migration, and rising counter-urbanization driven by economic crisis. Using a data mining framework, the present study investigates population growth and decline (2002–2016) in 51 prefectures with the aim to assess how economic cycles have influenced population dynamics along the urban gradient in Greece. Spatial patterns of population growth diverged along the study period in two homogeneous time windows reflecting economic expansion (2002–2007) and recession (2008–2016). Population increased during expansion in areas with urban centers hosting upper economic functions (university, international airport) far away from the Greek capital. During recession, population increased in coastal areas with tourism specialization, medium–low population density and moderate accessibility. Income levels and changes over time had no influence on population re-distribution over Greek prefectures, indicating a substantial decoupling of demographic growth from income growth. Although persistent density gaps are still observed in Greece, a moderate redistribution of population was observed during recession along a spatial gradient from economically-strong mainland areas to medium- and low-density coastal districts concentrating tourism activities. These findings outline how recent spatial re-distribution of Greek population was driven by distinct socioeconomic factors. Evidence of our study support further investigation on the role of economic cycles in present and future population trends at regional and local scales.

Recession and value of new dwellings: Changes in the spatial structure of Greece, 2003-2015

Recent economic dynamics in southern Europe have been influenced by multifaceted processes with important spatial outcomes. Construction industry has been one of the productive sectors with the most relevant crisis-driven changes in Greece, probably the most affected country in Europe. With the aim to provide a quantitative analysis offering a comprehensive knowledge of regional-scale dynamics in construction industry during expansion and recession times, the present study investigates spatial variations over 2003-2015 in the value of new dwellings, supplemented with other indicators of building activity (number of permits, average building surface, number of floors), at the scale of Greek prefectures. A data mining framework based on principal component analysis and non-parametric correlations with background socioeconomic indicators was developed to identify spatial patterns in building activity during economic expansion (2003-2009) and crisis (2009-2015). According to building permit data, the average value of new dwellings' per surface area increased in a spatially-heterogeneous fashion across the country, with a substantial difference in growth rates between the two investigated time intervals. During expansion, new dwellings' value increased across the country with a slight decline in two regions and a considerable growth in one region. During recession, new dwellings' value decreased in one region and increased markedly in four regions, being relatively stable in the rest of the country. In 2003, the highest values of new dwellings were spatially associated with economically-dynamic districts characterized by agglomeration economies, upper urban functions, and transport accessibility. With crisis, the spatial distribution of dwellings' value was more heterogeneous and not associated to specific background factors, with the highest increase observed in accessible rural districts and coastal areas with tourism specialization. Further investigation on the role of economic cycles in house value spatial trends is particularly required for designing effective post-crisis development measures.

Genetic diversity of Greek sheep breeds and transhumant populations utilizing microsatellite markers

Genetic variation in 13 local sheep breeds, raised in different regions of Greece, was assessed using 10 polymorphic microsatellite markers and was compared with that of three transhumant populations from the Greek Prefectures of Epirus, Sterea Ellada and Thessaly. The total number of alleles per marker ranged from 8 to 32 alleles, and transhumant samples exhibited higher values for allelic number, observed/expected heterozygosity and allelic richness than the local ones. Estimates of inbreeding coefficient (FIS) were significant only in the transhumant population of Epirus (*P<0.05). The genetic differentiation of the native breeds was low (FST=4.9%), indicating admixture, though all analyses provided clear evidence for the isolation of Thraki and Sarakatsaniko breeds. Differentiation of the three transhumant populations was much lower (FST=0.2%), indicating a high rate of gene flow between them. The admixture analysis, using Bayesian methods, suggested that many different local breeds have been used for breeding purposes in each of the three transhumant populations. Among the breeds with high proportion of membership to transhumant farming was Karagouniko which, as already known from literature, is used for the upgrading of numerous sheep populations in Greece.

EXPLORATION OF LOCALNESS IN THE CONTEXT OF ECONOMIC BASE: ACCESSING EVIDENCE FROM GREEK PREFECTURES

This paper explores the localness of Greek prefectures according to the methodological approach of economic base and, specifically, the minimum requirements technique, which leads to the estimation of a localness index for each group of prefectures of similar population size. Hence, through the definition of the types of areas that enhance their localness, the determination of the spatial pattern and the causes of these changes could be better investigated. According to the results of the research, a growing localness in all groups of prefectures during the period 2000–2009 has emerged. Localness seems high in a group with the highest population and largest urban concentrations, enhancing their ability to be largely self‐powered locally. Localness is high in the smallest group too, which is characterized by the pattern of integrated spatial development. Thus, without underestimating the importance of exports and imports, it makes more sense to look at localness and extroversion together in order to achieve greater development.

Informal Housing in Greece: A Multinomial Logistic Regression Analysis at the Regional Level

This paper deals with the primary causes of informal housing in Greece as well as the observed differentiations in informal housing patterns across space. The spatial level of analysis is the prefectural administrative level. The results of the multinomial logistic regression analysis indicate that Greek prefectures differ in the way they experience the informal housing phenomenon. An explanation for the observed differences may be the separate development paths followed and the diverse range of economic activities in each prefecture. The Greek state has not made provisions for creating the necessary ‘urban land stock’ in each prefecture, so that everyone interested can find land parcels at an affordable price. On the contrary, the state encourages the informal housing activity by legalizing large areas of such activity sporadically and by introducing legislative initiatives of limited success in dealing with the problem.