Greco-Roman World Research Articles

The Collective Unconscious of Rome and India

Abstract Ovid’s Metamorphoses has long served as a window into Greco-Roman culture and mythology. However, the ways in which the Metamorphoses may be shaped by, and in turn shape, the interactions between myths and cultures beyond the Greco-Roman world are underexplored. The Ramayan, a seminal South Asian mythological text, has received less attention in scholarship in the Global North, in part due to the overwhelming focus on the Greco-Roman canon. This article highlights stark narrative parallels between the abduction of Proserpina in the Metamorphoses and the abduction of Sita in the Ramayan. Given that these texts are genetically and geographically distinct, tracing the origin of these parallels remains challenging. Here, I leverage a Jungian analytical framework to propose that “narrative archetypes”—collections of images stored in the collective unconscious which manifest in myths across cultures—may explain why episodic details are conserved between the Metamorphoses and the Ramayan.

A New Member of BRICS — Egypt

The article analyzes the political, economic and cultural development of Egypt over several millennia. It is claimed that Egypt is an ancient civilization, the «heart» of the Arab world and a recognized regional leader. The author explores the history of various state entities that existed on the territory of modern Egypt in the era of the Ancient World, Antiquity, the Middle Ages and Modern times. The emphasis is consistently placed on the rule of the pharaohs, Egypt’s presence in the Persian and especially the Greco-Roman world, the periods of the Arab conquest, Ottoman and British rule, the functioning of the independent Kingdom of Egypt and the Arab Republic of Egypt that succeeded it in 1953. The article contains a detailed overview of key events in the country’s internal life over the past 70 years, as well as Cairo’s activities in the international arena, including participation in the Arab-Israeli wars, relations with global and regional actors in the second half of the XX – early XXI centuries, the current position of the state as one of the leaders of the African continent. It is indicated that Egypt ranks first in Africa in terms of GDP, third in terms of population, has serious scientific and technical potential and advanced financial system by regional standards, actively attracts foreign investment and new technologies. In the field of foreign policy, Egypt, while maintaining relations with Western powers, is intensely cooperating with new centers of power, including Russia. The author concludes that today the Arab Republic of Egypt is a powerful regional actor that is diversifying its foreign policy and economic ties, as reflected by the country’s entry into the BRICS.

An Evaluation of the Socio-Economic Implications of the Parable of the Unfaithful Servant in Luke 16:1-12

The parable of the unfaithful servant in Luke 16:1-12 has been a subject of scholarly debate. There is no consensus among scholars regarding its meaning and socio-economic context. Some scholars argue that the parable reflects a critique of the wealthy exploiting the poor, while others see it as teaching shrewdness in financial matters. This paper examined the socio-economic implications of the parable so as to establish its economic and social realities. It analysed the parable's historical, social, and economic background. Data was collected from existing literature on the parable and related topics. Content analysis was used to identify key themes and patterns in the data. The study found that the parable reflects the economic realities of the first-century Greco-Roman world, where the wealthy landowners exploited their tenants and servants. The parable criticises this system and emphasises the importance of wise financial management. The findings also indicated that the Parable remains relevant today because it challenges individuals and institutions to act in ways that promote the common good and contribute to sustainable development due to its call for justice and equity and the importance of debt forgiveness, responsible stewardship, ethical decision-making, accountability, and a shift in values towards relationships and justice. The study has contributed to knowledge by shedding light on the historical and social contexts of the parable and provides a nuanced understanding of its message. It recommends that scholars of Christian ethics should pay closer attention to the socio-economic context of biblical texts to better understand their message.

Royal Tamga Signs and Their Significance for the Epigraphic Culture of the Bosporan Kingdom

This article examines the phenomenon of the so-called royal tamga signs issued on stone stelae in the Bosporan Kingdom in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE. Tamgas were symbols commonly used by Eurasian nomads throughout the first millennium BCE. The appearance of tamgas in the northern shores of the Black Sea in the 2nd/1st BCE, followed by their adoption into the Greek epigraphic culture of the kingdom, represents an intriguing example of symbolic integration and another step in the formation of Bosporan culture. Research on cultural interactions between the inhabitants of the Bosporus has rarely focused on epigraphic material in its own right. Analyzing a small group of public stone slabs that feature tamgas, this article contributes to existing studies on numerous private funerary reliefs. Furthermore, the current work aims to incorporate several examples of stelae with royal tamga signs into the growing interest in syncretism, which is occurring in other epigraphic cultures of the Greco-Roman world. The case of the Bosporan Kingdom shows that such processes can also occur in places where no literate culture had previously been firmly established.

Prostitution og oprejsning

In this article, I conduct a diachronic cultural-historical analysis of the phenomenon of prostitution in pagan and Christian antiquity. My prime focus is how the spread and consolidation of Christianity in the Greco-Roman world effected the social attitudes towards prostitutes and their prospects in terms of social and spiritual rehabilitation. I begin with an introduction to the issue of prostitution in pagan roman antiquity, highlighting some of the social, legal, and economic aspects pertaining to it. I then examine the perspectives on social and spiritual rehabilitation in The Shepherd of Hermas and the stories of the repenting prostitutes, Mary of Egypt, and Pelagia of Antioch. Finally, I discuss and sum up the differences between the pagan and Christians attitudes towards prostitutes and their rehabilitation

COUNTERCULTURAL CHARACTER OF JOHANNINE CHRISTIANITY

The paper presents the rhetorical aspects of Johannine literature and shows the countercultural character of the community that produced it. Although different in genre, content and scope, the Gospels, the three Epistles and the Book of Revelation exude the same countercultural mechanism. To recognise these mechanisms on the literary level, the first part of the paper shows the impulses of countercultural interaction with the audiences. They are marked as a confrontation with religious and political authorities. Being in constant conflict with the Jewish synagogue and God-defying structures of the Greco-Roman world, the Johannine community built its own world. This world is legitimised as countercultural, i.e. constructed in opposition to the prevailing social structures and cultural practices. René Girard's anthropological concept of the scapegoat serves to observe the countercultural basis of Johannine Christianity, which is contained in the Christological symbol of the lamb. In the second part of the paper, examples of the operation of the countercultural mechanism are listed, and how it reshapes cultural practices and social structures is shown. The Johannine motifs of love and sacrifice are crucial in this process. Finally, the paper's conclusion briefly discusses the potential of the countercultural contribution of Johannine literature to Christianity and contemporary society.

Art and Markets in the Greco-Roman World

We study art markets in the Greco-Roman world to explore the origins of artistic innovations in classical Greece and the mass production of imitative works in the Roman Empire. Economic factors may have played a role, on one side fostering product innovations when a few rival Greek city-states competed, outbidding each other to obtain higher-quality artworks, and on the other side fostering process innovations when a large integrated market promoted art trade across the Mediterranean Sea. The evidence on art prices is consistent with this. Literary evidence on classical Greek painting from V–III centuries BC (largely from Pliny the Elder) shows that the real price of masterpieces increased up to the peak of creativity reached with Apelles. Epigraphic evidence on Roman sculpture from I–III centuries AD (largely from inscriptions at the base of statues) shows that the real price of statues was stable and largely equalized across the imperial provinces.

Michael F. Bird, Jesus Among the Gods: Early Christology in the Greco-Roman World (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2022), pp. xi + 480. $59.99.

Michael F. Bird, Jesus Among the Gods: Early Christology in the Greco-Roman World (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2022), pp. xi + 480. $59.99.

Dementia in the Ancient Greco-Roman World Was Minimally Mentioned.

The possibility that Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) is a modern disease arises from the minimal mention of advanced cognitive decline by ancient Greeks and Romans, who were mainly concerned with the physical frailties of older ages. Because standard medical histories of elderly health lacked mention of cognitive decline, we examined texts by Greek and Roman authors that mentioned memory loss and dementia. Primary texts of Greco-Roman authors, 8th century BCE into the 3rd century CE, that mentioned cognitive decline were identified and critically evaluated. Secondary sources were excluded. No ancient account of cognitive loss is equivalent to modern clinical data. The term dementia was occasionally used in antiquity, but not invariably linked to old age. Ancient Greeks and Romans expected intellectual competence beyond age 60. While some memory loss was acknowledged, we found only four accounts of severe cognitive loss that might represent ADRD. The possibility of modest ADRD prevalence in ancient Greece and Rome is consistent with its low prevalence in the Tsimane of Bolivia. These contemporary Amerindians live under conditions of high mortality from frequent infections and minimal cardiovascular disease with physically demanding lives. Tsimane after age 60 had increased mild cognitive impairment; the few cases of dementia were not clinically consistent with AD. The modern 'epidemic level' of advanced dementias was not described among ancient Greco-Roman elderly. The possible emergence of advanced ADRD in the Roman era may be associated with environmental factors of air pollution and increased exposure to lead. Further historical analysis may formulate critical hypotheses about the modernity of high ADRD prevalence.

От учредительного убийства к мученичеству: к вопросу об эволюции феноменов плодотворной смерти

The article aims to develop and supplement some of René Girard’s concepts, taking the notion of martyrdom as the departure point. The author suggests a hypothesis that the founding murder in Girard’s interpretation and martyrdom are two different paradigms of sacrifice and that martyrdom mirrors the founding murder and replaces it in the course of cultural evolution, being a Christian innovation. Analyzing four mythological accounts of the founding murder, in which the world or social order are created from the body parts of a slain deity or a monster (Tiamat, Tlaltecuthli, Ymir, and Purusha), the author concludes that they almost always lack the constitutive features of such myths highlighted by Girard: the culpability of the victim, the unanimity of the crowd, and ritual reproducing. Instead, their key feature is the very idea of creation through violence. The author challenges Girard’s idea that the founding murder’s mechanism eroded due to Judeo-Christian revelation, and examines several examples of how that mechanism was not recognized as such or doubted. Finally, the article puts forward the idea that the decline of the founding murder paradigm was due to the invention of martyrdom as its direct inversion: instead of creating the world or social order from the body of the slain entity, people began to rally around the victim from within their own ranks. According to the author, these two paradigms are in a complex relation of continuity and discontinuity, since the theology of martyrdom in Christian authors considers its similarities and differences with the “old” sacrifices in Judaism and the Greco-Roman world. The conclusion suggests that the paradigm of martyrdom is dominant in the modern world due to its spread in civil religions.

Actions as Means of Reconciliation in the Greco-Roman World: Its Hermeneutical Importance in Luke’s Gospel

Actions as Means of Reconciliation in the Greco-Roman World: Its Hermeneutical Importance in Luke’s Gospel

THE EDUCATIONAL ROLE OF LIBRARIES IN THE GRECO-ROMAN CIVILIZATION AND THE FORMATION OF THE SOCIAL CHARACTER OF READING

The paper delves into the interplay between the history of books, the evolution of libraries, and reading habits in the Greco-Roman world. It examines how literary production and reading practices were influenced by social and cultural conditions, shaping the relationship between readers and literature. By exploring book production, library institutions, and reading attitudes of that era, it becomes apparent how reading literature not only requires but also enhances linguistic, social, and cognitive skills, thus impacting overall quality of life. This historical perspective underscores the educational role of libraries as hubs for reading, fostering culture, and emphasizing the communal aspect of reading. It suggests that the notion of reading groups as interpretive communities, as we understand them today, has deep historical roots, catering to individuals' mental needs and serving societal functions within each collective.

Служение женщин в окружении Спасителя и апостолов

The article examines the ministry of women surrounding the Savior and the apostles, who did not change their general status, which developed in the Greco-Roman world, although the Gospel opened the way of salvation to humanity in its entirety, equaling women and men. Near Christ women go beyond the prescribed social roles or find new opportunities for their activities. Christ excluded them from the number of the apostles, although they were faithful listeners of His words and took part in the Gospel events. According to the evangelists, when women had devoted their life to «the ministry», they arranged the eve-ryday life of the Savior and the apostles or provided them with material support if they had sufficient means. However, for Christ, this activity was less significant than the state of the soul, therefore, the example of the spiritual and external arrangement of the life of the sis-ters Martha and Mary will form the «main» direction of the development of women’s activity in the Early Church. From the very beginning of this process, the key factor will be the formation of households of God as a model of the original Church structure, which took place with the active participation of women. Some women, such as Junia, could preach in private homes and perform individual catechesis of women and even men, but there was no question of publicity and further institutionalization of such empowerments. For St. Paul, the ministry of women was significant to the extent that it contributed to the spread of the Gospel. Perhaps many of the named women in the New Testament made their life choices at an advanced age. And in such a context, the concept of «servant/deaconess» applies not only to Phoebe, but also to all other women who, from the apostle’s point of view, performed the same service: after the myrrh-bearing women, they were new recipients of the testimony of the resurrection expressed in the «works» and defining the Church as both Holy and Apostolic.

Exempla in 1 Maccabees and Josephus’ Bellum Judaicum: Doing Jewish Exemplarity in the Greco-Roman World

Abstract The study of exempla and exemplarity in Mediterranean antiquity touches the methodological borderlines and interest areas of several distinct academic disciplines. Earlier studies focused on semantics and the development from the Greek παράδειγμα to the Roman exemplum. More recently, the field of Classics has tended to examine exemplarity as a phenomenon with a distinctively Roman edge. At the same time, scholars in adjacent disciplines like ancient Judaism and early Christianity have engaged Classics scholarship on this topic in their own work. This paper extends this arena by clarifying aspects of exemplarity within two paradigmatic texts of Hellenistic- and Roman-era Judaism. We examine 1 Maccabees 2:49–68 and Josephus’ Jewish War 6.99–110, both speeches set within “contemporary” histories written by Jewish authors. By examining these ancient Jewish passages, written within the Greco-Roman world, we help add clarity and meaning to what could be “Jewish” about exemplarity in ancient Mediterranean contexts.

ILLYRIAN ISSUES IN THE ENGLISH-LANGUAGE STUDIES OF MARJETA ŠAŠEL KOS

The article provides a historiographical overview and analysis of specific English-language publications by contemporary Slovenian researcher Marjeta Šašel Kos on the Illyrian issue. Issues related to hypotheses about the origin of the Illyrians, significant events in their internal history, achievements in various fields of culture, and an objective assessment of their relationship with the Greco-Roman world form the basis for an in-depth study of the ancient population of the Western Balkans, Central and Southwestern Europe. The world of Illyrian tribes, who were inhabitants of the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, the northwestern part of the Balkan Peninsula, and the southeastern part of the Alpine region, was in close proximity to the borders of the spread of the Greco-Roman civilization and its culture. Numerous Illyrian tribes, formed in the northern and southern ethno-cultural zone of the Eastern Hallstatt, were among the oldest tribal formations in the barbarian world of Europe (Pax Barbaricum). The world of the Illyrian tribes was sought to be understood by the ancient Greeks, followed by the Romans. However, contacts between representatives of these two diametrically opposite worlds ended in confrontation and assimilation. After numerous and bloody clashes, the world of the Illyrians lost its identity, underwent powerful Hellenization and Romanization, and acquired signs of deep provinciality. Therefore, the article's author seeks to introduce the reader to the achievements of individual bright and talented representatives of contemporary Illyriology and popularize their scientific work. Marjeta Šašel Kos's scientific work is diverse and productive (several extensive and substantive monographs and more than 70 scientific articles). The Slovenian researcher bases her views on archaeological and epigraphic materials, information comparisons, and reasoned criticism of ancient historians and geographers. All of these trends pursue a particular goal: to overcome the stereotype of perceiving representatives of the tribal world of ancient Europe, which was shaped by Greco-Roman written tradition. The review of her English-language works on the Illyrian issue demonstrates that Slovenian and European Illyriology are actively developing, allowing us to get to know and understand the specifics of the historical development of the ancient Illyrians.

Jesus Among the Gods: Early Christology in the Greco-Roman World. By Michael F. Bird. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2022. xi + 480 pp. $59.99 cloth.

Jesus Among the Gods: Early Christology in the Greco-Roman World. By Michael F. Bird. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2022. xi + 480 pp. $59.99 cloth.

The Amanuensis Hypothesis in New Testament Scholarship: Its Origin, Evidential Basis, and Application

For centuries, the authorship claims of certain New Testament epistles have been defended by postulating the use of a secretary. According to the amanuensis hypothesis, secretaries in the Greco-Roman world were afforded varying degrees of compositional freedom during the letter-writing process. Proponents of this view maintain that such a consideration invalidates the practice of making authenticity judgments based on the style or even content of a given letter. To better understand the merits and limitations of the amanuensis hypothesis, this article outlines its earliest formulations, traces the development of its evidential basis, and examines the various ways it has been applied within modern authorship debates.

Finding Forgiveness: Augustine and Greco-Roman Thought on Interpersonal Forgiveness

Abstract: Despite the great esteem for forgiveness in the modern world, recent historical studies have cast doubt on the existence of the practice or even the concept of interpersonal forgiveness in the Greco-Roman world. Classical scholars have noted the prevalence of vengeance in the popular and literary imagination, the scarcity of apology, the subordination of clemency to political power, and the philosophical opposition to forgiveness. The Latin bishop Augustine of Hippo (354–430) surprisingly agreed with this assessment. Augustine, his contemporary Roman critics, and even his congregation understood the church as advocating—even discovering—a novel, difficult practice: unconditional forgiveness. Though Augustine offers no singular treatment of forgiveness, his letters and sermons bear witness to a clearly developed and articulated position: that forgiveness must be preveniently, unconditionally offered but is still necessarily oriented toward the just reform of the offender. Augustine particularly highlights the example of Christ's forgiveness and its union with prayer. Augustine interprets the scandal of unconditional forgiveness in reference to the even greater scandal of love of enemies, which seeks the true good of offenders in accord with justice, rather than satisfaction through a belittling vengeance. Thus, Augustine's view of forgiveness can be best grasped by distinguishing between the offer of forgiveness— forgiving —and the reception of forgiveness— being forgiven . Forgiving is unconditional, but being forgiven occurs through just reform. In this way, the complete arc of forgiveness incorporates both prevenient mercy and justice. In addition to illuminating the place of late antique Christianity in the history of forgiveness, this article shows that Augustine presents a robust account of unconditional forgiveness that is not a passive resignation but rather intrinsic to true justice.

Was Dionysus a Music Therapist?

In the Ancient Greco-Roman world, Dionysus was the deity to call upon for all things relating to intoxication, ritual madness, and religious ecstasy. Living firmly in the realm of festivity and celebration, he appears to be a one-dimensional pleasure deity. But what if Dionysus was more than simply the god of parties? I propose the potential therapeutic value of Dionysian (ecstatic) music by applying both ancient and modern interpretations to close readings of Ancient Greco-Roman mythological texts. In section one, I define Dionysian music against its more demonstrably therapeutic Apollonian counterpart, drawing from a variety of Ancient writers including Homer, Euripides, and Ovid. While this section emphasizes negative psychological effects of Dionysian music, section two argues that the mythical hero-musician, Orpheus, links Apollo to Dionysus and thus suggests the therapeutic potential of Dionysian music. I further this argument in section three through a discussion of how Dionysian music can be interpreted by Plato, Aristotle, and modern psychologists as therapeutic due to its ability to both express and regulate emotions. I conclude that although Dionysus does not belong amongst modern music therapists, his presence is certainly at home in modern theories of music therapy.

Diety Nike-Victoria of the late Antique period on the territory of Georgia

The states on the territory of Georgia were part of the Classical antiquity ecumene. Accordingly, both Iberia and Colchis had close trade-economic and cultural relations with the Roman Empire, from where the deities popular in the empire spread to the territory of Georgia. Among them, a special place is occupied by the ancient god of victory, Nike (Ancient Greek: Νίκη). The name Nike is believed to date back to the pre- Greek period. In Greek mythology, Nike appears as a companion of Zeus and Athena. In Greek art, the deity is mainly depicted with symbols of victory – wings, a crown and a palm branch, but we also find a wingless Nike. In Roman reality, the Victoria (Latin: Victoria) corresponded to Nike. Research has shown that the deity Nike (Victoria) was one of the most widespread cults in late ancient Iberia, which is the result of political and cultural relations with the Greco-Roman world. In late antiquity, the cult of Nike (Victoria) was recorded on the territory of Georgia in the Kingdom of Kartli (Iberia) – on the territory of Greater Mtskheta, Urbnisi, Zhinvali... Since the Hellenistic period, religious syncretism was also reflected on the engraved gems found on the territory of Kartli. Athena-Tikhe-Fortuna- Demeter-Nike depicted in an oval-shaped cornelian intaglio in a fragment of an iron ring. Tomb №27 of Karniskhevi, 2nd-3rd centuries. Nike-Fortuna-Athena is depicted in an oval-shaped white, transparent glass intaglio in an iron seal. Urbnisi necropolis. Tomb №205. 1st-early 2nd century AD. Seals with the image of the deity Nike (Victoria) found in the territory of Georgia belonged to all layers of society. Gemas can be found both individually and in gold, silver and bronze rings. Intaglios with the image of the deity are made of: carnelian, glas, almadine, which are inserted into iron, bronze, silver and gold rings. It is noteworthy that the cult of Nike (Victoria) is mainly prevalent in urban centers. From the above, we can conclude that Nike (Victoria) was popular and in our opinion, mainly among the Romanized population.