Great Reform Research Articles

Critical representation of the clerical milieu in the era of Russian Great Reforms (1860s–1870s): a starting point for reforms or condemnation?

ABSTRACT The paper investigates the predilection of Russian literature of the 1860s towards a critical representation of social reality, focusing on criticism aimed at the Russian Orthodox clergy. The author analyzes two novels written in the middle of the decade – Livanov (1864) by Mikhail Osokin and Na pogoste (At the churchyard, 1865) by Nikolai Blagoveshchenskii – to demonstrate both the objects of criticism and the literary devices used for this purpose. The analysis allows her to detect differences between two variants of criticism and place them within the literary and ecclesio-social context of the second half of the nineteenth century. She observes that a critical approach was characteristic of both journalists and writers who were deeply concerned about the state of the Church and were striving to revive it, and of those wishing to radically destroy the past. While the objects of their criticism were mainly identical, their literary texts differ in the way they employ plot, characterization, and stylistic devices to convey diverse ideological messages.

La giustizia sportiva e le riforme CONI che hanno inciso sul processo disciplinare sportivo. La nuova fisionomia della Procura federale

The article reviews the historical genesis of C.O.N.I. and the Sports Federations’ role and prerogatives outlined by the national legislator. Then, it illustrates the reforms that have affected the sports justice system and, especially, the federal prosecutor’s office, to identify the ratio of the current sports disciplinary proceedings’ physiognomy. The depicted historical and regulatory excursus shows an evolutionary framework, in which CONI, the FIGC, and certainly for what concerns the competence of the state legislator, have been (and are) protagonists, and proves how the profound metamorphosis of the domestic justice sector, just like the great reforms of the general legal system, has started following and due to phenomena occurred in the sports world’s social and historical fabric, which has determined the need for change, progressively translated into the politicization of the new rules in the sector’s system.

Mikhail M. Speransky and his Constitutional Project

Mikhail M. Speransky was a versatile person, who knew law, politics, philosophy, mathematics, physics, eloquence. Even Napoleon was impressed by the sharpness of the mind of the Russian political figure. The statesman clearly understood the needs of the society of the 19th century, realized what and how it was necessary to bring the Russian Empire into the state system in order to improve it. Indeed, a detailed analysis of the constitutional project of the great reformer is of great importance for the history of Russia. Thus, research on this topic remains relevant now. Mikhail M. Speransky is a key figure who found himself at the junction of two eternally opposing movements of socio-political thought, namely: conservatism and liberalism. The reformer was a supporter of liberal transformations, but for their successful implementation it was necessary to have a society, albeit conservative, but internally ready for new trends in politics, state and law. Why did a statesman with radical views fail to fully implement his ambitious plans? Is his large-scale plan only a ghostly illusion? The paper examines the main directions of the liberal policy of Mikhail M. Speransky in the process of creating and trying to implement a constitutional project, analyzes objective and subjective socio-historical factors that influenced the possibility of the actual implementation of the ideas of an astute and wise state and legal figure. Special attention is also paid to the significance of the personality of Mikhail Mikhailovich — a reformer with radical views — in the history of our country. Undoubtedly, Mikhail M. Speransky formulated a large number of liberal postulates governing the creation of a rule of law. Echoes of some of his ideas can be seen in modern concepts and principles implemented in Russia.

Autocracy and the Great Reforms in the memoirs of V. A. Maklakov

The article is devoted to the analysis of the first scientific edition of V.A. Maklakov's memoirs. The author examines the problems of the relationship between the autocracy and the social movement in the Russian Empire at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Electoral Violence in England and Wales, 1832–1914

Abstract This article analyses over 19,000 articles from newspapers and parliamentary commission reports to reveal endemic electoral violence in England and Wales between 1832 and 1914. It offers a new understanding of the phenomenon in three main ways. First, the extent of election violence, which regularly featured major riots requiring police and military intervention, disturbances of the peace, and deaths, questions conventional understandings of Britain's comparatively peaceful political development through a century of gradual suffrage expansion, rising literacy and economic development. Second, the trajectory of the electoral violence, which peaked in the period after the Second Reform Act of 1867 rather than after the Great Reform Act of 1832, challenges the linearity of these accounts. Third, despite the recent historiographical emphasis on explaining electoral violence as a ritual expression of discontent, much violence resulted from elites strategizing to win elections. Electoral violence occurred disproportionately when and where it was most useful to candidates and parties, and often involved the previously overlooked figure of the ‘hired rough’: men employed to disrupt elections by force. We thus advance a political, rather than cultural, explanation for electoral violence.

Проблема перехода иноверцев Российской империи в православие во второй половине XIX века по публицистическим источникам на примере М. К. Кабановой и Е. В. Мелковой

The article is devoted to the problem of the conversion of non-believers of the Russian Empire to the Orthodox faith in the second half of the XIX century. These gentiles had to resist their society in particular, their families, or break social ties. Based on journalistic sources, the author reconstructs the activities of Maria Kosminichna Kabanova and Ekaterina Vasilyevna Melkova, who show examples of individual missionary service of women carried out in the 1870s-1890s in the Orenburg and Samara dioceses, respectively. The article highlights the ways in which missionaries carried out their activities and examines the features of their interaction with the structure of the Orthodox Missionary Society. Basing on the example of the missionaries’ service it is noted how important it was for the Russian Orthodox Church to organize shelters for the newly converted orthodox people so that they could safely establish in their faith. Because of this, the emphasis is put on the fact that the shelters created by the missionaries were not an artificial phenomenon, but arose in response to an existing need. M. K. Kabanova and E. V. Melkova indicated with the help of their service, which occurred at the same time, certain changes which took place in the society because of the Great Reforms. It is seen both through the tendency of the people to acquire the desire to serve the Church and the mission and through the newly opened possibility to change their social status of women.

ЖЕНА И ПОМОЩНИЦА ГУБЕРНАТОРА: А.М. АРЦИМОВИЧ В СИБИРИ (1854–1858 гг.)

The paper examines the problem of the significance and possibility of studying the biographies of the wives of high-ranking officials of the Russian Empire. The wives of high-ranking officials, including figures of the Siberian administration, did not officially work, but played an important role in public life and management practices. Sometimes they did not abandon traditions, but adopted the norms of the new era. A review of the research literature allowed the author to note that, despite the impressive number of works by domestic and foreign historians on gender issues, the issue has not been sufficiently studied. The use of memoir-epistolary sources created by the wife of the Tobolsk governor V.A. Artsimovich, her relatives and acquaintances, made it possible to fill this gap using the example of one of these ladies. For the first time, letters from A.M. Artsimovich and V.A. Artsimovich to her are being introduced into scientific circulation from the funds of V.A. Artsimovich in the State Archives of the Russian Federation and the Manuscript Department of the Institute of Russian Literature of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The main stages of the biography of Anna Mikhailovna Artsimovich (nee Zhemchuzhnikova) are reconstructed, the daily life of the governor’s family, its complexities and specifics in Siberian conditions are characterized. The main directions and features of the activities of the governor’s wife and assistant, participation as a trustee in the management of the Mariinsky Girls’ School are shown. The significance of the Siberian years for the development of the personality of an extraordinary woman was revealed. The evolution of her views, her transformation into a like-minded person and ideological ally of the famous statesman of the era of the Great Reforms is covered. An important result of the study was the filling of the gap in characterizing the role in public life of the wives of prominent figures in the Siberian administration.

HISTORICAL STAGES OF POLITIZATION OF RUSSIAN LITERATURE DURING THE GREAT REFORMS

This article presents the stages of politicization of Russian literature in the era of the Great Reforms. The first stage is the end of the reign of Nicholas I (1848-1855), the second is the period of preparation for the Great Reforms (1855-1861), the third is the period of the Great Reforms (1861-1866), the fourth is the period of the end of the Great Reforms (1866-1881). The first period can be characterized as the period of the emergence of political literature, as yet without a pronounced social ideal. Censorship increased during this period, but important features of the liberal ideal were articulated in the literature. The second period was characterized by the weakening of censorship, the emergence of a number of new newspapers and magazines. Then literary criticism begins to play an important social role and the maximum politicization of the literary process takes place. At the same time, a patriarchal social ideal was formulated in a number of works of art. The third period was distinguished by the fact that raznochintsy authors began to play an important role in literature. This led to the emergence of opposing parties of “nihilists” and “anti-nihilists”, as well as to the emergence of the phenomenon of the anti-nihilist novel. First half of 1860 became the time of the formation of a social ideal of raznochintsy. The fourth period can be characterized as a period of reflection on the results of the Great Reforms, as a time for writers to rethink their views and develop new ideas about the social ideal.

미국 내전기간 제38차 정기의회의 전시 재건논의와 갈등

This critical essay aims at the understanding the Civil War and Reconstruction and finally President Lincoln’s thinking about the Thirteenth Amendment. President Issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. and so all Confederate slaves but a few certain areas and borderlines states were freed. Therefore, so many black soldiers had taken part in battles such as Port Hudson and MilliKen’s Bend, Louisiana, and Fort Wagner, South Carolina. On December 8, Lincoln introduced so-called “Ten-Percent Plan of Reconstruction” and the Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction. All these great reform movements and the military reconstruction had great affected into black people in the Confederate areas. And the reform-mind Congress had visioned a ultimate settlement, the Thirteenth Amendment, which had been approved and ratified and in the finally added into the U. S. Constitution. In the course of these increasingly added reform movements, I try to understand why President never accepted all the reform programs acquiescently and firstly in the very historic movement. why he taken more careful and extended observation about States Right, contrary to the past statements as the Emancipation Proclamation and Gettysburg Address.

Reformation of marital laws in Hungary: Early reception of Luther, Calvin and Beza before and until 1667

The main achievements of the huge research on the history of the Hungarian Protestantism show that at the beginning of the Protestantism the local reformers and preachers were interpreting Luther’s ideas, but from the 1550s Calvin’s doctrines became decisive. The reception of the great reformers’ ideas was far from being evident in the practice. It means pastors and preachers in Hungary did not cite directly from the written heritage of Luther (Pelikan Helmut 1955-1986), Calvin (Calvin 1863–1900) or Beza. They used to use the Bible itself. Nevertheless, many new and unknown problems raised, which deserved prompt and clear theological and moral advice. Most of the challenges were related to the burning, everyday questions of sexual sins and of family life. Therefore, it is not surprising that contemporary preachers were trying to commit everything to renew the public morality of people. The article intends to illuminate the evolution of the early Protestant marriage law system and theological thinking in Hungary after the temporary ’collapse’ of the Roman Catholic Church and its canon law in the 1550s. At the same time, it is raising the question, how did the ’great reformers’ influence the early Protestant marriage law system and theological thinking in Hungary.Intradisciplinary and/or interdisciplinary implications: This article is based on the field of systematic theology. The study intends to understand the development of Hungarian Reformed regulations of marriage in the 16th and 17th century from theological, judicial and historical perspectives.

Husain Faizkhanov (1823–1866) on Modernity: an Analysis of Correspondence Between 1855 and 1866

The article is devoted to the views of Husain Faizkhanov on the realities of Modern times, which were reflected primarily in his correspondence in 1855–1866. We investigate how Husain- Hazrat reflects the geopolitical situation, that is, the Crimean War (1853–1856) and the subsequent expansion of Russian borders in Kazakhstan and Central Asia in the 1850s and the half of the 1860s. In the conditions of competition between Russia and the West, H. Faizkhanov analyzes the system of organization of European science, its connection with reality. We examined his reflection of the Great Reforms of the 1860s and to the opportunities that opened up as it’s result for Muslim Tatars. At the same time, we considered his attitude to similar modernization reforms in the Muslim world, primarily in the Ottoman Empire and Egypt.

The Diplomat, Strategist, Intelligence Officer, Historian – in the Service of Russia. Prince Alexey B. Lobanov-Rostovsky

This article is devoted to the life and various activities of the outstanding diplomat Prince Alexey B. Lobanov-Rostovsky (1824–1896). The name of Lobanov-Rostovsky was not mentioned in the academic literature until the first decade of the 21st century. Then Lobanov began to be remembered thanks to the efforts of his descendant Prince Nikita D. Lobanov-Rostovsky, who initiated a number of studies about the prominent diplomat. A fundamental monograph on Prince Lobanov-Rostovsky has now been prepared. His international activity as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary took place during some of the most difficult political periods of the time: in Constantinople (1859–1863 and 1878–1879), London (1879–1882) and Vienna (1882–1895). He always managed to solve the most pressing problems using skillful diplomatic tools. He was appointed Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Internal Affairs during the challenging period of restructuring of social and public institutions in Russia. It was the era of the so called Great Reforms of Emperor Alexander II. The position was offered to the Prince on account of his superior intellect, strategic foresight and tactical flexibility. During his 11 years in the post (1867–1878), Prince Lobanov-Rostovsky often performed the duties of a minister. During this time, the legal norms of the state and its relations with society significantly improved. In 1870, Alexey B. Lobanov-Rostovsky received the honorary position of State-Secretary of His Imperial Majesty, that is, the Emperor's personal speaker, a position he held until the end of his life. Both Emperor Alexander II and Nicholas II treated Lobanov-Rostovsky with a special warmth. Lobanov-Rostovsky managed to conclude the Russian-Turkish final Peace Treaty of 1879, which put an end to the war between the two countries. This agreement gave Russia significant moral and material results and marked the beginning of the autonomous Principality of Bulgaria, the first steps towards Bulgarian statehood. Lobanov-Rostovsky served as Foreign Minister for 18 months (1895–1896), during which time he brought Russia significant results on the world stage and was highly appreciated both in Russia and around the world. This article talks about the different sides of the prince’s extraordinary personality. A true polymath, proficient in the Russian antiquity, he became a bibliophile, collector, genealogist and historian. He wrote carefully considered commentaries on the historical documents he discovered, and for 14 years (1871–1885) he systematically published his work in history journals. This article examines memoir entries of Lobanov-Rostovsky’s contemporaries about the diplomat, as well as the latest research about him.

Roman law in the jurisprudence of Russian courts

In modern Russian judicial practice, the justification of court decisions by normative provisions extracted from all that is collectively embraced by the concept of “soft law” is becoming increasingly widespread. In this article, this phenomenon is revealed in the aspect of the practical application by Russian courts of certain provisions of Roman law. Considering specific examples of this kind, the authors, through doctrinal reflection, seek to identify common reasons that encourage domestic courts to turn to the mentioned source of “soft law” and come to the conclusion that modern Russian civil law in a sense repeated the path that was traversed by the civil law of imperial Russia. If, back in the middle of the 19th century, the judiciary could not even think of looking for a source of inspiration anywhere other than a literal interpretation of the text of the law, then with the beginning of the “Great Reforms” of the 1860s, the unsuitability of such an approach for servicing the rapidly developing turnover was revealed, and since the legislator could not keep up with its development, the main work of adapting positive law to changing relations was accepted the courts have assumed much broader discretionary powers. Since the possibilities of the domestic doctrine to meet the needs of the law enforcement officer in understanding and developing Russian law turned out to be very limited, judges found themselves in demand for the European civilian tradition based on Roman law, familiarity with which prompted them to independent judicial law-making. In many ways, similar processes are observed in post-Soviet Russia, a visible manifestation of which is the expansion of “soft law” into law enforcement practice, primarily through an appeal to the analogy of law and teleological interpretation. One of the facets of this process is the revival of interest in the legacy of Roman law and the Romanistic tradition. In this sense, unexpected parallels are found with the development of the common law.

Тематика фельетонов о Новом Поэте и ее диахронические трансформации

The article discusses the thematic range of feuilletons featuring the New Poet published in the Sovremennik magazine between 1847 and 1862, as well as the changes in their thematics over time. An analysis of the content of these feuilletons shows that their authors, including Ivan Panaev, were well aware of the existing tradition of the feuilleton genre and at first adhered to its conventions. However, over time, they moved away from conventional, genre-specific approaches to selecting feuilleton topics and adapted the notes about the New Poet to current events. The feuilleton authors of Sovremennik sought to develop an idealized image of a writer who represented the project of a new literature during the last years of the reign of Nicholas I, as who was an active member of society during the Great Reforms era — a person familiar with contemporary public debates. In addition, Panaev and his co-authors rely on the gradual expansion of the thematic diversity in the feuilleton genre, trying to orient the reader in a larger context of events and perspectives. The main methods used in the article are structural topic modeling, which highlights broad subject-semantic fields, as well as assessment of information entropy that indicates the degree of diversity in the feuilleton themes.

Dmytro Ivanovych Kachenovskyi – a legal scholar, educator and teacher (based on the materials of Kharkiv Law Society)

The article examines the scientific and pedagogical activities of the legal scholar, professor of Kharkiv University Dmytro Ivanovych Kachenovskyi (1827–1872). The researcher pioneered the national legal education and had a significant impact on its development. The study of the creative work of the mid-nineteenth century international law expert became relevant in the early twentieth century. In 1903, Kharkiv Law Society held a solemn meeting on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of Dmytro Kachenovskyi’s death. Following the meeting, a collection of materials in memory of Dmytro Kachenovskyi was published. These materials are a valuable historical source that contain special information and contribute to a deeper study of the scientist’s scientific heritage. The study of the source expands the existing documentary base. The purpose of the study is to study and analyse the materials of the collection published by the Kharkiv Law Society in honour of Professor Kachenovskyi.
 The analysis of memoirs helps to reconstruct the key episodes of a scientist's life in more detail, to form an idea of his personality, to explore the directions of his scientific research, views on topical social issues, attitude to teaching, relationships with colleagues, and influence on students.
 It has been proved that the distinctive features of the scientist were humanistic guidelines, breadth of outlook, and diversity of scientific interests. His natural abilities, academic education, developed intellect, and ability to work determined his personality. His knowledge of foreign languages, foreign internships, personal contacts with foreign colleagues, and the study of European scientific literature in the original allows us to characterise him as a typical representative of the “inner West” who saw his mission in spreading education and the latest scientific achievements. His lectures, which were characterised by a comprehensive approach to teaching, brought up a generation of public and judicial figures of the era of great reforms.

The Experience of the “Muravyov System” in the Domestic Politics of Russia at the End of the 19th – Beginning of the 20th Centuries

The article examines the issue of the “Muravyov system” (the political course of the Governor- General of the North-Western region M.N. Muravyov-Vilensky, 1863–1865) and its infl uence on the internal policy of the Russian Empire in the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. The author comes to the conclusion that the basic principles of Muravyov-Vilensky were later implemented at the all-Russian level. It was planned to combine anti-crisis repressive (administrative and police) measures with certain reforms. The reforms were intended to gain public support for government policy as only on that condition they could have the desired long-term effect. The policy of Muravyov-Vilensky was supported by the progressive bureaucracy, that developed the course of the Great Reforms of Emperor Alexander II, – N.A. Milyutin, Minister of Internal Affairs M.T. Loris-Melikov (1880–1881) and Prime Minister P.A. Stolypin (1906–1911). All of them also combined in their policy certain measures of revolutionary forces suppression with reform projects.

Stan parafii archidiakonatu gnieźnieńskiego w epoce potrydenckiej w świetle siedemnastowiecznych wizytacji (wybrane przykłady)

This article aims to show the relation between the premise of the great reform of the Catholic Church from the 16th century and the state of the individual, diversified parishes of the archdeaconry of Gniezno after the Council of Trent. The events of the 17th century are discussed when the process of restoration of the status of the Catholic Church occurred. Two out of four canonical visitations that remained from this archdeaconry were used in the article. They come from the beginning and the end of the 17th century and are the most comprehensive. They allow for an insight into the state of the parish then operating in the ever-changing social, economic, and political conditions. To an extent, they allow to find an answer to the question if and how the reform introduced by the Council of Trent reflects in the functioning and certain elements an essential and important link in the Church structure.

Особенности эволюции экистического пространства Саратовской области во второй половине имперского периода (1800–1917 гг.)

This study delves into the profound transformation of demographic and Ecistic space within the contemporary Saratov region during the latter half of the imperial era (1800–1917). Spatial and temporal trends, as well as the driving forces behind their development, have been meticulously examined. The findings reveal a fascinating process of Ecistic space metamorphosis within the region. This intertwines with the wave-like dynamics of numerous socio-technical innovations (including the emancipation of serfs and the establishment of free land trade, state peasant reforms, the advent of the industrial revolution, and the sweeping Great Reforms). It is evident that the colonization phase of territorial exploration and the establishment of a fundamental hierarchical framework (governorate → district → volost → city → village) within the Ecistic space of the region have reached their culmination.

АССИМЕТРИЯ ИНФОРМАЦИИ И ОППОРТУНИЗМ СУБЪЕКТОВ: ВОЗМОЖНОСТИ ИНСТИТУЦИОНАЛЬНОГО АНАЛИЗА В ИСТОРИИ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОГО УПРАВЛЕНИЯ В РОССИИ

The main research problem of this article is the possibility of applying some concepts of the neo-institutional approach to analyzing the history of public administration system in Russia in the 19th — early 20th centuries, as well as in the late Soviet era. Th is allows us to better understand the general patterns of evolution of the mechanisms of state institutions functioning in the past and present. Th e research method was case analysis; the selected cases relate to manifestations of information asymmetry and opportunism of subjects of state governance interactions. Th e paper examines the reaction of government offi cials to the Decree of Alexander I of August 6, 1809 “On the rules of promotion to ranks in the civil service and on tests in the sciences, for promotion to Collegiate Assessors and State Councilors.” As the second example illustrating the manifestation of “government opportunism”, the period of the “Great Reforms” in Russia was chosen. Th e third case considered was the development by the supreme power of normative documents ensuring the activities of representative government bodies created in accordance with the provisions of the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. Th e latest of the analyzed cases were manifestations of information asymmetry and opportunism during the perestroika period, examined using the examples of cotton pricing and the behavior of regional government offi cials in relation to production cooperatives. In all analyzed cases, the possession of more information by one of the parties led to an increase in mistrust between the participants in the interaction, usually supporters of reforms and their opponents. In turn, mistrust resulted in opportunistic behavior of subjects in the process of developing and implementing reform plans. Ultimately, all this led to falling into institutional traps and the consolidation of negative institutional qualities.

Rol' Obshchestva penzenskih vrachej v razvitii nauchnoj obshchestvennoj mediciny Penzenskoj gubernii

One of the achievements of the era of Great Reforms in Russia was the intensification of the consolidation of social forces in various spheres of activity. The authors focus on the work of the Society of Penza Doctors, established in Penza in 1863, and the Hospital for Poor Patients who come to it. On a charitable basis, the first outpatient clinic in the history of the province was created. Through professional communication, the doctors tried to continue their self-education and promoted the popularization of the achievements of scientific medicine in the provincial society through the local “Gubernskie Vedomosti".