Greater Income Research Articles

Determinants of coping strategies among agropastoralists in Kitui and Isiolo counties, Kenya

Agropastoralists in Kenya’s Arid and Semi-arid Lands (ASALs) face various shocks that threaten their livelihoods and expose them to significant health and economic risks. While existing studies often focus on climate-related shocks, they frequently overlook other challenges faced by these communities. A comprehensive understanding of how agropastoralists manage diverse shocks is essential to developing effective vulnerability reduction strategies. This study examined the major shocks experienced by agropastoral households in Kenya’s ASALs, their primary coping strategies, and the determinants informing the choice of the strategies adopted. Using cross-sectional data from 371 households in Isiolo (203) and Kitui (168) counties, this study applied descriptive analysis and multivariate probit (MVP) models to assess coping strategies and influencing factors. From 2016 to 2021, households faced shocks, such as droughts, livestock pests and diseases, crop pests, theft, and intercommunal conflicts. Regional variations were observed: crop pests were common in Kitui, whereas Isiolo experienced higher theft and conflict rates. Coping strategies include income diversification, asset sales, increased farm labor, and reduced food expenditure. Severe droughts and conflicts led to migration, while floods caused extreme measures such as withdrawing children from school. Key factors influencing coping strategies include household demographics, farm characteristics, and market proximity. Households with more adults, higher literacy, or greater income from crops and livestock are less likely to adopt costly strategies. This study recommends integrated interventions to enhance resilience to both climate and non-climate shocks.

Analisis Komparatif Literasi Keuangan Bagi Pengelolaan Keuangan Mahasiswa Manajemen Universitas Buana Perjuangan Karawang

Students, as the nation's next generation, not only have to face the increasing complexity of goods, services and financial markets, but also have to bear greater financial risks than their parents. College students have greater income and expenses than the population as a whole. Parents should teach their children about money management as many students realize that this does not make them good economic players in today's world. This research is quantitative in nature and t-test for independent samples was used to analyze the data. A total of 192 students participated in this research, both those who were working and those who were not working. Based on the study findings, there is a significant difference for financial literacy and no significant difference for financial management between working and non-working students.

Correlation between non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and metabolic parameters in persons with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes mellitus.

There are limited studies investigating the association between type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in the region of Bihar, India. To estimate the prevalence of NAFLD in persons with newly diagnosed T2DM in the population of North Bihar, India. This single centre cross-sectional study was undertaken in the Research Centre for Diabetes Hypertension and Obesity, Samastipur, Bihar, India. Data were collected from persons newly diagnosed with T2DM or those diagnosed within 6 months of when the study was conducted between December 2022 to May 2023. A total of 148 people with newly diagnosed T2DM were included (median age 47 years, 46.6% female) and 109 patients with liver disease on ultrasound evaluation. The persons with liver disease consumed more fats and oils (88.1% vs 74.4%, P = 0.042) and they had significantly greater body mass index (27.4 vs 23.0, P < 0.001), waist circumference (37 vs 33, P < 0.001), and waist-to-hip ratio (1.00 vs 0.70, P = 0.025). Females were associated with greater liver disease [odds ratio (OR): 3.09, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.09-8.80, P = 0.32]. Waist circumference (OR: 1.42, 95%CI: 1.22-1.66, P < 0.001) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (OR: 1.01, 95%CI: 1.01-1.02, P = 0.048) were associated with any liver disease. The factors most associated with grade 2/3 liver disease was right upper quadrant pain or heaviness (OR: 5.22, 95%CI: 1.40-19.41, P = 0.14), greater income (OR: 3.58, 95%CI: 1.28-10.04, P = 0.015) and waist circumference (OR: 1.31, 95%CI: 1.02-1.69, P = 0.036). NAFLD is common in new/recently diagnosed T2DM and disease burden is high and common among patients who are either high consumers of fats and oils or have obesity-associated markers.

ANALISIS SALDO PRIMER POSITIF PADA TAHUN 2023 SEBAGAI INDIKATOR APBN PERTUMBUHAN EKONOMI DAN KESEJAHTERAAN

The 2023 State Revenue and Expenditure Budget (APBN) shows a positive figure of 92.2 trillion. This has been anticipated since 2012, and it has always been in a negative condition. This is an indicator of the improving health of the APBN, as a manifestation that leads to better economic conditions and the welfare of Indonesian society in general. The primary balance is state income minus state expenditure without debt interest payments. In determining the initial assumptions of the 2023 APBN Law, the primary balance is in negative condition. And, until the end of 2023, it shows a positive balance how This condition can show that the economy is developing with greater income, which will impact people's welfare.

How Technology, Health Information Seeking, and Socioeconomic Factors Are Associated With Coronavirus Disease 2019 Vaccination Readiness in Estonians Over 50 Years?

Despite the proven effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines in preventing severe illness, many individuals, including older adults who are most susceptible to the virus, have opted against vaccination. Various factors could shape vaccination decisions, including seeking health information (HI). The internet is the primary source of HI today; however, older adults are often referred to as those missing out on digital benefits. The study explores the correlations between information and communication technology (ICT) use, online HI seeking, socioeconomic factors, and COVID-19 vaccination readiness among individuals aged 50 and above in Estonia. The survey data were gathered from 501 people aged 50 and older after the first lockdown in 2020. The outcomes revealed that vaccination readiness positively correlated with factors such as higher educational attainment, greater income, male gender, access to ICT, a readiness to employ digital technologies for health-related purposes, a greater demand for HI, and a higher frequency of seeking it online. There was some discrepancy in the preference of HI sources; for example, vaccination consenters preferred online versions of professional press publications and specific health portals. Based on the findings, it is advisable to encourage older adults to utilize the internet and new technology for health-related purposes. This practice expands the range of information sources available to them, ultimately enabling better decision-making regarding their health behaviors.

The temporal stability of maternal parenting style and child feeding practices: A six-wave longitudinal study

Although parenting styles and child feeding practices are conceptualized as distal, static predictors of child eating and weight outcomes, few studies have examined the temporal stability (i.e., change over time) of these parenting measures. Also, parental characteristics, such as mental health or socio-demographics, may make it more or less difficult to sustain consistent parenting behavior. This study examined the temporal stability of parenting styles and child feeding practices and the association between temporal stability indices with maternal sociodemographic and mental health characteristics. The analytic sample included 161 ethnically diverse mothers enrolled in a six-wave bi-annual longitudinal study. During each wave, mothers reported on their parenting styles and child feeding practices using validated self-report questionnaires. Temporal stability indices for parenting styles were moderate for authoritative (ICC = 0.57) and authoritarian (ICC = 0.70) styles, yet high for permissive (ICC = 0.78) styles. Temporal stability scores for child feeding practices were low for discipline (ICC = 0.33), limit setting (ICC = 0.33), monitoring (ICC = 0.36), and pressure to eat (ICC = 0.34); however, restriction (ICC = 0.53) and role modeling of healthy eating were moderate (ICC = 0.73). Greater income and education status were positively associated with stability in authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles, as well as with limit setting, monitoring, role modeling of healthy eating, and pressure to eat feeding practices. Higher anxiety and depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem were negatively associated with permissive parenting styles and role modeling of healthy eating. Findings show that maternal parenting styles and child feeding practices fluctuate over time, and sociodemographic and mental health characteristics are related to stability of some of these parenting styles and behaviors.

Effects of education, income and employment on ICU and post-ICU survival - A nationwide Swedish cohort study of individual-level data with 1-year follow up

PurposeThe aim of this study was to examine relationships between education, income, and employment (socioeconomic status, SES) and intensive care unit (ICU) survival and survival 1 year after discharge from ICU (Post-ICU survival). MethodsIndividual data from ICU patients were linked to register data of education level, disposable income, employment status, civil status, foreign background, comorbidities, and vital status. Associations between SES, ICU survival and 1-year post-ICU survival was analysed using Cox's regression. ResultsWe included 58,279 adults (59% men, median length of stay in ICU 4.0 days, median SAPS3 score 61). Survival rates at discharge from ICU and one year after discharge were 88% and 63%, respectively. Risk of ICU death (Hazard ratios, HR) was significantly higher in unemployed and retired compared to patients who worked prior to admission (1.20; 95% CI: 1.10–1.30 and 1.15; (1.07–1.24), respectively. There was no consistent association between education, income and ICU death. Risk of post-ICU death decreased with greater income and was roughly 16% lower in the highest compared to lowest income quintile (HR 0.84; 0.79–0.88). Higher education levels appeared to be associated with reduced risk of death during the first year after ICU discharge. ConclusionsSignificant relationships between low SES in the critically ill and increased risk of death indicate that it is important to identify and support patients with low SES to improve survival after intensive care. Studies of survival after critical illness need to account for participants SES.

Determinants of Consumers’ Willingness to Purchase Generic Medicines

In Malaysia healthcare costs have posed challenges to the sustainability of the country's dual healthcare system, it is crucial to learn about the factors influencing consumer preferences for generic medicines. The public healthcare system predominantly uses generic drugs, private healthcare providers often prescribe originator brands to their patients. This practice places financial burdens on patients who must fund their medication independently or through private medical insurance. Therefore, the main objective of this paper is to investigate the determinants affecting consumers' willingness to purchase generic medicine in Malaysia. Using convenience sampling, a total of 436 responses was obtained. Descriptive statistics and bivariate logistic regression analysis were employed to examine the influence of sociodemographic factors and individual knowledge on the willingness to purchase generic medicine. The results indicate that age, ethnicity, marital status, education level, household size and income significantly influence the consumers' willingness to purchase generic medicine. Notably, higher education levels and greater income were associated with a higher willingness to opt for generic medicine. Unexpectedly, variables measured by the Theory of Planned Behavior did not contribute substantially to the findings of this study. Nonetheless, individual knowledge was revealed as a significant determinant. To increase the uptake of generic medicines, this study recommends educational programs for both healthcare providers and patients, emphasizing the benefits and safety of generic medicine. This research contributes to the broader discussion on cost-effective healthcare solutions and informs policymakers and healthcare stakeholders in Malaysia.

Barriers to mental health service use among people with disabilities during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated existing health inequities for people with disabilities (PWD), including disparities in mental health needs and service use. The present study investigated prospective predisposing, enabling, and illness-related correlates of mental health service need and use among PWD during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data were collected online at two time points: October-December 2020 and October-December 2021. U.S. adults with disabilities completed self-report measures on demographic and disability characteristics, pandemic-related stressors (e.g., worries about COVID-19), depression, anxiety, barriers to service use, and perceived mental health needs and service use. Two logistic regressions were used to examine the effect of predisposing, enabling, psychosocial barriers, and illness-related factors on perceived mental health service need and service use. Perceptions of mental health service needs were significantly predicted by gender (female-identified, transgender and gender diverse [TGD]), younger age, increased depressive symptoms, and presence of a prepandemic mental health condition. Among those who reported a perceived need, mental health service use was predicted by gender (female-identified and TGD), greater income, lower frequency of anticipated provider disability bias, and presence of a prepandemic mental health condition. This study provides vital descriptive data on the pattern of mental health service utilization among PWD during the COVID-19 pandemic, a uniquely disruptive, challenging time. Findings further underscore the necessity of providing disability competency training and bias reduction interventions to mental health professionals, as anticipated provider disability bias was a key factor in nonservice use of PWD. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The Impact of Nursing Services on Patient Satisfaction: A Scientific Analysis of Hospitals Under the Libyan Ministry of Health

Background: The success of nursing services depends on more than only the care and recovery of patients. The effectiveness of providing these services is governed not only by the knowledge and skills of medical workers. Objectives: This paper aims to evaluate the impact of nursing services on patient satisfaction: a scientific analysis of hospitals under the Libyan ministry of health. Methods: This study uses a descriptive analysis method to evaluate the effectiveness of nursing services conducted by the Libyan Ministry of Health. Data and information related to nursing services in hospitals managed by the Libyan Ministry of Health are collected and analysed to provide a clear picture of quality and safety of services, use of resources, and patient satisfaction. The PSNCQQ used to measuring the amount of predicted need, with 5-point Likert scale. Results: Patients with greater incomes and more education tend to be more satisfied with nursing treatment, income level and education level both have statistically significant impacts. Conclusions: This study concludes that the examination of the effectiveness of nursing services by the Libyan Ministry of Health provides significant benefits in improving service quality and patient satisfaction. Although there are some aspects that need to be continuously improved, the descriptive analysis method proves the effectiveness of this check as an important tool in improving the health system and providing better services to the people of Libya.

Evaluasi Perbandingan Penjualan Offline dan Online Terhadap Pendapatan (Studi Kasus pada Kedai Cak Mat Ali Kota Bangkalan)

In this increasingly developing era, it requires entrepreneurs to be able to continue to develop their business because of increasingly fierce competition, entrepreneurs must have a sales strategy so that the business they are running can continue to survive and can grow and be recognized by the wider community. Kedaia Cak Mata Ali is a business engaged in the food and beverage sector. research was conducted to determine the comparison of offline and online sales of income. The type of data analysis used in this research is descriptive qualitative. Data collection techniques are observation, interviews. And documentation. Analysis of data from research can obtain results of a comparison of offline and online sales to income. It can be seen that offline sales have greater income than online sales. because consumers prefer to buy directly at the cak mata ali shop because prices are cheaper compared to buying online and consumers are more satisfied when buying directly at the shop because the goods purchased can be according to performance.

Oasis of Tourism in the Middle of Palm Plantations: The Survival Strategy of Small Farmers "Pusaka Tani Sidomulyo"

Farmers in developed and some developing countries have good financial stability. The size of the cultivated area is the key to the level of welfare of farmers, the more land that is managed, the greater income that will be obtained. In the end, it can provide Economic stability for the farmers themselves. On the other hand, 41% of farmers in developing countries can be categorized as small farmers who do not have enough income. Smallholder farmers here can be categorized as farmers with a cultivated area of approximately 1 hectare of land. In fact, FAO as a high-ranking organization that concentrates on agriculture and plantations states "small farmers need other side jobs to make ends meet". The above facts show the need for intervention from various parties in helping small farmers, especially in dealing with these problems. One of the community empowerment programs carried out by PT Pertagas OSSA is to keep small farmers alive with agricultural and plantation fields and businesses through social safety nets by creating other business units. Some of the business units that are used as social safety nets are: 1) utilization of empty bunch waste into mushroom growing media and organic fertilizer, 2) empowerment of women in productive Economic fields, 3) encouraging the creation of Eco edu tourism, 4) utilization and management of resources to meet basic water needs, and 5) utilization and management of infrastructure resources such as fishing ponds, swimming pools, selfie locations as tourist destinations in the middle of the plantation.

Use of Smart Devices to Track Cardiovascular Health Goals in the United States

BackgroundSmartphone-based health applications are increasingly popular, but their real-world use for cardiovascular risk management remains poorly understood. ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to investigate the patterns of tracking health goals using smart devices, including smartphones and/or tablets, in the United States. MethodsUsing the nationally representative Health Information National Trends Survey for 2017 to 2020, we examined self-reported tracking of health-related goals (optimizing body weight, increasing physical activity, and/or quitting smoking) using smart devices among those with cardiovascular disease (CVD) or cardiovascular risk factors of hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and/or smoking. Survey analyses were used to obtain national estimates of use patterns and identify features associated with the use of these devices for tracking health goals. ResultsOf 16,092 Health Information National Trends Survey participants, 10,660 had CVD or cardiovascular risk factors, representing 154.2 million (95% CI: 149.2-159.3 million) U.S. adults. Among the general U.S. adult population, 46% (95% CI: 44%-47%) tracked their health goals using their smart devices, compared with 42% (95% CI: 40%-43%) of those with or at risk of CVD. Younger age, female, Black race, higher educational attainment, and greater income were independently associated with tracking of health goals using smart devices. ConclusionsTwo in 5 U.S. adults with or at risk of CVD use their smart devices to track health goals. While representing a potential avenue to improve care, the lower use of smart devices among older and low-income individuals, who are at higher risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes, requires that digital health interventions are designed so as not to exacerbate existing disparities.

The CEO as Monopolist

CEOs can extract extraordinarily high income from the firms they manage because of their monopoly power. This derives both from a general preference for hiring proven CEOs who have already served at other firms, as well as from the tendency of new CEOs to reorganize the firms they lead. Firms’ status quo bias unnaturally delimits the pool of CEO applicants and increases the monopoly power of incumbent CEOs. New CEOs who install their own top management teams generally reorganize the firm to optimize the application of their own abilities and those of their new team. However, CEOs can also reorganize to maximize their monopoly power. Conceptualizing CEOs as potential monopolists integrates insights from the principal/agent, upper echelon, efficiency wage, and x-inefficiency literatures. This paper develops the consequences of monopolistic CEOs who potentially receive efficiency wages that may exceed their marginal revenue product. If CEO income is sufficiently high, their labor-supply curves bend backwards, something far less likely for other employees. A backward-bending labor-supply curve can result in CEOs receiving even greater income as they deliver even lower levels of executive leadership.

PENGARUH DIVIDEN PER SHARE (DPS), LABA BERSIH DAN EARNING PER SHARE (EPS) TERHADAP HARGA SAHAM PADA INDUSTRI MAKANAN DAN MINUMAN DI BURSA EFEK INDONESIA

The purpose of this research is to analyze whether the dividend per share (DPS), net income and earning per share (EPS) affect the stock price on food an beverage industry in stock exchange on periode 2014-2018. This research is a desciptive quantitative research and analysis tool used in this research are simple linear regression is useful to see the direction of the relationship between the variable bound against free. For the purpose of answering the purpose number 2 used statistical test F and test t. The correlation coefficient to know how the relationship between variables and coefficients of determination of useful to see the magnitude of the influence of the variable bound against free. The food and beverage sector is a sector where companies in Indonesia produce value- cadded products. Growth in this sector in Indonesia is supported by basic human needs for food and beverages, large populations, greater income and higher spending on high-rise middle-class food. Based on SPSS calculation results obtained F value count of 13,211 with a sig value of 0.043. This indicates that the value F count is greater than the value of the table F ((13,211 &gt; 4,07) and the value is significantly smaller than the alpha value (0.043 &lt; 0.05). Thus Ho was rejected and Ha was accepted. It means that DPR, net profit and EPS jointly influence the value of the company in food an beverage industry in stock exchange on periode 2014-2018. As for the advice that the authors can give in this research is as follows for the company should further increase the value of financial ratios that affect the increase in the stock price. For investors, can use the variable DPS, net profit and EPS together to see the feasibility of investing and investors can see from other variables that affect a partial to the stock price. For the development of science, this research can provide additional knowledge as a source of information and as a donation of thought in developing financial management disciplines. For further researchers we recommend using another ratio to calculate their impact on the share price as it can be possible another ratio also affects the increase in the company’s share price.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COCOA CERTIFICATION AND NON-CERTIFICATION FARMING IN KELAPA DUA VILLAGE, ANREAPI DISTRICT, POLEWALI MANDAR REGENCY

Cocoa is one of the plantation crops that is widely cultivated in Polewali Mandar, the cocoa certification program is an effort to increase cocoa production and prices at the farm level. This study aims to determine the comparison of the income level of cocoa farms through the cocoa certification program and farms that have never participated in the certification program while developing the cocoa commodity, as well as to determine the comparison of R/C ratio and B/C ratio values. The implementation of this research began in May to July 2021, in Kelapa Dua village. Data collection techniques used structured interviews using questionnaires and question and answer. The results showed that the average income achieved by certified cocoa farmers is Rs 5,572.75 per/ha. When compared to the average income of non-certified cocoa farmers is Rs 4,715,429 per/ha. The difference between the income of certified and non-certified cocoa farmers is Rp. 857,325. The results of the R/C ratio analysis for certified cocoa can be planted by looking at the R/C ratio value of 2.40 and for non-certified cocoa has an R/C ratio value of 2.27. Profit B/C ratio result as a result of certified and non-certified income is 3.12. This shows that both certified and non-certified cocoa are feasible to develop, but certified cocoa has a greater income than non-certified cocoa.

Geographic Trends in General Surgery Resident Compensation Across the United States

To examine the effect of cost of living on general surgery resident salaries and identify factors associated with greater incomes and availability of housing stipends. Retrospective cross-sectional analysis of Fellowship and Residency Electronic Interactive Database (FREIDA), institutional websites, and Doximity. Program characteristics were compared through Kruskal-Wallis tests, ANOVA, and χ2 tests. Multivariable linear mixed modeling and multivariable logistic regression were utilized to determine factors associated with higher salary and availability of housing stipend, respectively. Three-hundred fifty-one general surgery residency programs in the United States. Three-hundred-seven general surgery residency programs with available salary data for the 2022 to 2023 academic year. The average postgraduate year 1 resident annual salary was $59,906.00 (standard deviation [SD] ± $5051.97). After adjustment for the cost of living, the average annual income surplus was $22,428.42 (SD ± $4848.64). Cost of living and resident remuneration varied substantially across regions (p < 0.001). Annual income surplus was the highest for programs in the Northeast when compared to other regions (p < 0.001). Resident annual income increased by $510 (95% confidence interval [CI] $430-$590) for each $1000 increase in the cost of living and $150 (95% CI $80-$210) for each 10-rank increase in Doximity general surgery program reputation ranking. An increased cost of living was associated with a higher likelihood of housing stipend availability (odds ratio 1.17, 95% CI 1.07-1.28). General surgery residents are inadequately compensated for the cost of living, indicating the potential for increased compensation to alleviate economic strain of surgical trainees. As financial stress can have implications for mental and physical well-being, further discussion of current resident salaries and benefits is warranted.

Socioeconomic, Behavioural, and Social Health Correlates of Optimism and Pessimism in Older Men and Women: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Optimism is a disposition characterised by positive future expectancies, while pessimism is characterised by expecting the worst. High optimism and low pessimism promote the health of older adults and may potentiate full engagement in life. We identified socioeconomic, behavioural, and social factors associated with optimism and pessimism in older adults. Participants included 10,146 community-dwelling, apparently healthy Australian adults aged 70 years and over from the ASPREE Longitudinal Study of Older Persons (ALSOP). Optimism and pessimism were measured using the revised Life Orientation Test. Cross-sectional ordinal logistic regression was used to determine the socioeconomic, behavioural, and social health factors associated with optimism and pessimism. Higher education, greater physical activity, lower loneliness, and volunteering were associated with higher optimism and lower pessimism. Low social support was associated with higher pessimism. Higher socioeconomic advantage, greater income, and living alone were associated with lower pessimism. Women were more optimistic and less pessimistic than men. The association of age, smoking status, and alcohol consumption with optimism and pessimism differed for men and women. Factors associated with higher optimism and lower pessimism were also those demonstrated to support healthy ageing. Health-promotion action at the individual level (e.g., smoking cessation or regular physical activity), health professional level (e.g., social prescribing or improving access and quality of care for all older adults), and community level (e.g., opportunities for volunteer work or low-cost social activities for older adults) may improve optimism and reduce pessimism, possibly also promoting healthy ageing.

Retention and engagement of rural caregivers of adolescents in a short message service intervention to reduce sugar-sweetened beverage intake.

This study investigates a 6-month short message service (SMS) intervention to reduce adolescent sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intake. The objectives are to describe caregiver retention and SMS engagement as well as explore differences by caregiver characteristics. Caregivers completed a baseline survey then messages were sent two times per week. Message types included the following: SSB intake assessments, educational information, infographic URLs, and strategies. Engagement was measured through interaction with these messages and included: assessment completion, reminders needed, number of strategies chosen, and URLs clicked. Caregivers (n = 357) had an average baseline SSB intake of 23.9 (SD = 26.8) oz/day. Of those, 89% were retained. Caregivers with a greater income and education were retained at a higher rate. Average engagement included: 4.1 (SD = 1.3) of 5 assessments completed with few reminders needed [4.1 (SD = 3.7) of 14 possible], 3.2 (SD = 1.1) of 4 strategies selected, and 1.2 (SD = 1.6) of 5 URLs clicked. Overall, average engagement was relatively high, even where disparities were found. Demographic characteristics that were statistically related to lower engagement included younger age, lower income, lower educational attainment, single caregivers, lower health literacy. Furthermore, caregivers with a reduced intention to change SSB behaviors completed fewer assessments and needed more reminders. Higher baseline SSB intake was associated with lower engagement across all indicators except URL clicks. Results can be used to develop targeted retention and engagement strategies (e.g., just-in-time and/or adaptive interventions) in rural SMS interventions for identified demographic subsets. Clincialtrials.gov: NCT03740113.

Wealth, health and inequality in Agta foragers.

There is significant evidence from large-scale, industrial and post-industrial societies that greater income and wealth inequality is negatively associated with both population health and increasing health inequalities. However, whether such relationships are inevitable and should be expected to impact the health of small-scale societies as they become more market-integrated is less clear. Here, using mixed-effect models, we explore the relationship between health, wealth, wealth inequality and health inequalities in a small-scale foraging population from the Philippines, the Agta. Across 11 camps, we find small to moderate degrees of wealth inequality (maximal Gini Coefficient 0.44) which is highest in the most permanent camps, where individuals engage more heavily in the formal market. However, in both adults (n = 161) and children (n = 215), we find little evidence that either wealth or wealth inequality associates with ill health, except for one measure of nutritional condition-red blood cell count. We interpret these results in the light of high levels of cooperation among the Agta which may buffer against the detrimental effects of wealth inequality documented in industrial and post-industrial societies. We observe little intergenerational wealth transmission, highlighting the fluid nature of wealth, and thus wealth inequality, particularly in mobile communities. The deterioration of nutritional status, as indicated by red blood cell counts, requires further investigation before concluding the Agta's extensive cooperation networks may be beginning to breakdown in the face of increasing inequality.