Greater Risk For Homelessness Research Articles

Leaving a Pupil Referral Unit in Wales: Care Experienced Young People and their Post-16 Transitions

Care experienced young people are more likely to leave compulsory schooling with fewer qualifications than their non-care experienced peers. They continue to be over-represented in school exclusion figures and are more likely to attend alternative provision such as pupil referral units (PRUs). Transitions at 16 can be difficult, particularly when support systems are lost. As such, these young people are at greater risk of homelessness, criminality and suicide, on leaving compulsory education. The risks associated with these transitions are heightened even more for those leaving alternative provision. Exploring what factors can support the transitions of PRU learners into post-16 destinations is an important line of enquiry. This article discusses qualitative findings from the first year of a three-year mixed methods study involving research with 14 PRU learners. It explores young people’s reflections on their educational journeys so far and their expectations for life after the PRU. The findings highlight how experiences of school exclusion can impact negatively on future trajectories. Despite this, the participants were still able to foresee and describe ambitious plans, supported in part by caring PRU professionals and positive role models in their lives. The article concludes by considering the factors that may facilitate or create barriers to sustainable transitions for this cohort of young people, as they begin to leave the PRUs.

Review of Reported Adverse Events Occurring Among the Homeless Veteran Population in the Veterans Health Administration.

United States veterans face an even greater risk of homelessness and associated medical conditions, mental health conditions, and fatal and nonfatal overdose as compared with nonveterans. Beginning 2009, the Department of Veterans Affairs developed a strategy and allocated considerable resources to address veteran homelessness and the medical conditions commonly associated with this condition. This study aimed to examine the Veterans Health Administration National Center for Patient Safety database for patient safety events in the homeless veteran population to mitigate future risk and inform policy. This was a retrospective, descriptive quality improvement study of reported patient safety events of homeless veterans enrolled in Veterans Health Administration care between January 2012 and August 2020. A validated codebook was used to capture individual patient characteristics, location and type of event, homeless status, and root causes of the events and proposed actions for prevention. Suicide attempt or death, elopement, delay in care, and unintentional opioid overdose were the most common adverse events reported for this population. Root causes include issues with policies, procedures, and care processes for managing and evaluating homeless patients for the risk of suicidal or overdose behaviors and discharge, poor interdisciplinary communication, and coordination of patient care. Actions included standardization of procedures for discharge, overdose and suicide risk, staff education, and purchasing new equipment. Suicide and opioid overdose are the most serious reported health care-related adverse events in the unsheltered homeless veteran population. Failures to recognize homelessness status, communicate status, and coordinate available services are root causes of these events.

Trends and Challenges in Rural Homeless Populations

Background: Homelessness is a significant public health issue in the United States. Living in rural locations has been associated with an increase in poverty. Additionally, it has been found that veterans are at greater risk for homelessness than the general population. The aim of this research was to characterize rural homeless veterans and non-veterans living in Nebraska, United States.
 Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted comprising 50 veterans and 64 non-veterans recruited from rural locations in Nebraska. Fully structured interviews were conducted by the research staff that consisted of questions regarding participant sociodemographics, housing, clinical characteristics, psychosocial factors, and utilization of health care and social services.
 Results: In comparison to non-veterans, rural homeless veterans were found to be older, more qualified, and more likely to have ever been married. Veterans spent fewer nights in a shelter and more nights in a halfway house. Regarding clinical features, veterans were more likely to report posttraumatic stress disorder and alcohol misuse. Veterans also reported shorter travel times to reach health care services and used them more often compared to non-veterans.
 Conclusion: These findings suggest that homeless veterans and non-veterans within rural settings have unique needs to be addressed when it comes to providing health care and social services, as well as in attempts to eliminating homelessness. Further research will help in the development of improved methods to support rural veterans and non-veterans.

Predictors of Housing Instability in Women Who Have Experienced Intimate Partner Violence.

Although one in four women in the United States experience severe intimate partner violence (IPV) in their lifetimes and are at greater risk for homelessness and housing insecurity than women who have not experienced IPV, the factors increasing the vulnerability of women with an IPV history to housing instability have not been examined. This cross-sectional study utilized baseline data from interviews with 218 IPV-exposed women from diverse ethnoracial backgrounds participating with their children in the Kids' Club and the Mom's Empowerment Program, joint interventions designed to improve outcomes in families who have experienced IPV. Multiple regression was used to examine the predictors associated with housing instability, quantified as the number of times a participant had moved in the past 4 years. Demographic information was collected and exposure to violence was measured with the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS); severity and prevalence of PTSD and depression symptoms were measured with the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PDS) and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), respectively. Results showed that level of education was positively associated with housing instability, while age of the participant, average monthly income, and increased severity of PTSD symptoms were negatively associated. Neither the participant's race nor the extent of reported violence significantly predicted participants' housing instability. The findings of this study may serve to better identify those who have experienced IPV that are most at risk of experiencing housing instability, and to inform future interventions and policy aiming to support their needs. In addition, these results further emphasize the importance of providing housing resources in addition to interventions designed to improve physical and psychosocial health in enabling women that have experienced IPV to gain independence from an abuser.

“Humbling experiences”: A photovoice project with sexual and gender‐expansive youth experiencing homelessness

AbstractWhile experiencing homelessness, queer youth are subject to stereotyping, discrimination, and violence that affect their ability to achieve independent living and actualize goals. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ)‐identified youth of color are at greater risk for homelessness when compared to heterosexual counterparts. This study explores lived experiences of queer‐identified youth of color who are currently experiencing homelessness. Using photovoice methodology, a group of 4 participants drawn from an Atlanta‐based service provider for LGBTQ youth were engaged in a series of focus groups to discuss meaningful photographic images and give voice to shared homelessness experiences. From their individual and collective narratives, three key themes were identified: becoming aware, managing inner struggles, and recognizing personal strengths. The participating youth marked the conclusion of the project by presenting to youth service practitioners a poster board display of photos that visually represented areas of concern and opportunities for ongoing advocacy to benefit this underserved and often misunderstood population. This study also reports on this poster board display and the outcomes identified by the participating young people for better supporting homeless LGBTQ young people.

Substance Use Disorder Among Current Cancer Patients: Rates and Correlates Nationally in the Department of Veterans Affairs

Substance use disorders (SUDs) are known to cause or complicate treatment of many types of cancers. We sought to systematically assess rates of current SUDs among patients currently in treatment for cancer. The National Veteran Health Administration administrative data from fiscal year 2012 were used to compare veterans with both cancer and comorbid SUDs to veterans with cancer but no SUDs and those with a SUD but no cancer. Bivariate comparisons and multivariate logistic regression were used to compare groups on sociodemographic characteristics, medical and mental health diagnoses, service use, and psychotropic and opioid medication fills. Of 482,688 veterans with cancer diagnoses, 32,037 (6.64%) had a comorbid SUD diagnosis. Veterans with cancer and a SUD had more medical and psychiatric disorders than those with cancer alone, a greater risk of homelessness, and a greater use of both mental and medical health services, with 60% receiving mental health outpatient treatment. These veterans had fewer differences from veterans with SUDs only, although they were older and had more medical illnesses. Notably the cancer SUD group had higher rates of hepatic disease and received a greater number of opioid prescriptions than both veterans with cancer alone and veterans with SUD alone. Veterans with cancer and SUD showed a specific risk for liver disease and a higher use of opioids. Collaborative teams involving oncology, palliative care, and psychiatry may be best able to address the challenge of providing adequate and safe opiate pain control for this vulnerable population.

Rurality or distance to care and the risk of homelessness among Afghanistan and Iraq veterans

PurposeSeveral risk factors have been identified in ongoing efforts by the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) to mitigate high rates of homelessness among veterans. To date, no studies have examined the relationship of rurality and distance to nearest VA facility to risk of homelessness. Due to challenges in accessing available services, the hypothesis was that rural-residing veterans are at greater risk for homelessness. The paper aims to discuss these issues.Design/methodology/approachThe cohort consisted of veterans who had separated from the military between 2001 and 2011. The authors used a forwarding address provided by the service member at the time of separation from the military to determine rurality of residence and distance to care. The authors examined differences in the rate of homelessness within a year of a veteran’s first encounter with the VA following last military separation based on rurality and distance to the nearest VA facility using multivariable log-binomial regressions.FindingsIn the cohort of 708,318 veterans, 84.3 percent were determined to have a forwarding address in urban areas, 60.4 and 88.7 percent lived within 40 miles of the nearest VA medical center (VAMC), respectively. Veterans living in a rural area (RR=0.763; 95 percent CI=0.718-0.810) and those living between 20 and 40 miles (RR=0.893; 95 percent CI=0.846-0.943) and 40+ miles away from the nearest VAMC (RR=0.928; 95 percent CI=0.879-0.979) were at a lower risk for homelessness.Originality/valueThe unique data set allowed the authors to explore the relationship between geography and homelessness. These results are important to VA and national policy makers in understanding the risk factors for homelessness among veterans and planning interventions.

Risk factors for homelessness among US veterans.

Homelessness among US veterans has been a focus of research for over 3 decades. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, this is the first systematic review to summarize research on risk factors for homelessness among US veterans and to evaluate the evidence for these risk factors. Thirty-one studies published from 1987 to 2014 were divided into 3 categories: more rigorous studies, less rigorous studies, and studies comparing homeless veterans with homeless nonveterans. The strongest and most consistent risk factors were substance use disorders and mental illness, followed by low income and other income-related factors. There was some evidence that social isolation, adverse childhood experiences, and past incarceration were also important risk factors. Veterans, especially those who served since the advent of the all-volunteer force, were at greater risk for homelessness than other adults. Homeless veterans were generally older, better educated, and more likely to be male, married/have been married, and to have health insurance coverage than other homeless adults. More studies simultaneously addressing premilitary, military, and postmilitary risk factors for veteran homelessness are needed. This review identifies substance use disorders, mental illness, and low income as targets for policies and programs in efforts to end homelessness among veterans.

Veterans Homelessness Prevention Demonstration Evaluation: Interim Report

This interim evaluation report describes the first year of the Veterans Homelessness Prevention Demonstration (VHPD). Funded in FY2009, the VHPD is a joint effort of the U.S. Departments of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), Veterans Affairs (VA), and Labor (DOL) to provide homelessness prevention and rapid rehousing to veterans, especially those returning from conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq. The VHPD has five sites, with each associated with a military base and a Veterans Affairs Medical Center (VAMC). The sites are in Utica, NY; Tampa Bay, FL; Tacoma, WA; San Diego, CA; and Austin, Texas. It is the first attempt to investigate homelessness prevention and rapid rehousing services for veterans and their families.Prevention and rapid rehousing are necessary components in any plan to end homelessness. Veterans are at greater risk of homelessness than comparable non-veterans, with veterans of recent conflicts possibly at higher risk than veterans of earlier conflicts. Further, compared to earlier generations of veterans, service members returning from post­-9/11 conflicts include more women, parents, and members of the National Guard and Reserve units. Because of this, Congress intended that the VHPD evaluation investigate ways to reach and serve veterans at risk of homelessness among these subgroups.

Research on Homeless Vets Suggests Ways to Target Services Based on Risk Factors

FEAR THAT US VETERANS RETURNING from Iraq and Afghanistan would be disproportionately affected by homelessness because of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and blast-related injuriesmaybemisplaced,suggestedStephen Metraux, PhD, associate professor of health policy and public health at the UniversityoftheSciencesinPhiladelphia. Metraux spoke in an April webcast on homelessnessamongveteranssponsored bytheSubstanceAbuseandMentalHealth Administration (SAMHSA). Rather, evidence suggests that poverty, substance abuse, and mental illness—the same factors that drive homelessness in the general population— may pose greater risks to veterans than the so-called signature injuries of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Metrauxisamongagroupofresearchers tryingtobetterunderstandthecauses ofhomelessnessamongveterans inorder to prevent the problem and to better tailorservicestoveteransfacingit.Theirfindings so far offer some surprises. For example,womenveteransarenotathigher riskofhomelessness than theirmalecolleagues,butwhentheydofacehomelessness, they have unique needs stemming fromahighlikelihoodofhavingchildren or having experienced sexual trauma. Metrauxandcolleaguesanalyzeddata from the Department of Defense and the DepartmentofVeteransAffairs(VA)and foundthatofveteransdischargedbetween July 1, 2005, and September 30, 2006, 1.8%(5694of310 685)hadrecordsofreceivinghomelessservices.“It’saboutwhat you’d expect in the general population,” he said. “It’s not consistent with some of thealarmist languagepeoplehaveused.” Veterans who had been deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan did have a somewhat higher risk of homelessness (odds ratio [OR]=1.3), and PTSD was associated with a higher risk of homelessness only among veterans who were deployed (OR=1.2 among male veterans and OR=1.6 among female veterans), according to research presented by Metraux. Still, a veteran’s pay grade prior to discharge appears to be a better predictor of the risk of homelessness, with individuals in the lowest pay grade making up 44% of this cohort of veterans but 72% of the homeless group. Individuals with behavioral health problems made up 17.8% of the discharge cohort but made up 44% of the homeless group. “We hope this represents the beginning steps of developing a system to identify persons at risk,” said Metraux. Although female veterans are not at greater risk of homelessness than their male colleagues, they are at greater risk of homelessness than nonveteran women. Additionally, women veterans appear to have their own set of risk factors for homelessness. For example, sexual trauma is a greater risk factor for homelessness among women than men, said Jack Tsai, PhD, an investigator for the Veterans Affairs New England Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center and an assistant professor of psychiatry at Yale University.

Corliss et al. Respond

The letter by Rice et al. provides further evidence that sexual-minority adolescents are at greater risk for homelessness than adolescents in general. To understand the scope of the problem nationally, we strongly urge surveillance mechanisms, such as the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), to collect standardized data on sexual orientation and homelessness. In addition to Massachusetts, a number of other state and regional YRBSSs collect sexual orientation data. Standardizing sexual orientation questions across surveys and increasing the number of surveys that collect these data will improve our ability to quantify the scope of the problem. Additionally, we suggest using a homeless question like the one in the Massachusetts YRBSS1 because it is based on the McKinney-Vento2 federal definition of homelessness (i.e., lacking a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence) and provides detailed information on type of living situation and unaccompanied status. As Rice et al. note, there is great variation in homelessness by region. There are also regional differences in attitudes toward homosexuality and gender-role norms.3,4 Systematic data collection will allow us to examine how risk for homelessness in sexual-minority teens may vary by region and other sociodemographic characteristics such as race/ethnicity and gender. The 2005 Massachusetts YRBSS estimated that 4.2% of Massachusetts public high school students were homeless, yet only 0.6% of Massachusetts high school students were identified by schools as homeless during the 2004–2005 academic year.5 Health and social service professionals need to do a better job working with schools to identify homeless students and to link them with services to find stable housing, to assist them with their educational needs, and to support their health and well-being. In public health, these efforts are known as secondary (i.e., intervening early to end homelessness) and tertiary (i.e., providing services to those currently homeless such as temporary shelter, food, and other social and medical services) prevention efforts. Equally important are primary prevention efforts that focus on preventing homelessness in the first place. Efforts to identify effective primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention strategies for sexual-minority youth at risk for homelessness are clearly needed. What strategies help families overcome challenges leading to sexual-minority teen homelessness? Are programs in schools and communities for homeless youth effective at reaching sexual minorities and addressing their specific needs? Because homeless sexual-minority teens are likely to be unaccompanied by their parents/guardians, does this influence their access to shelter-based and other services? Answers to these and other questions will help us eliminate the unconscionable sexual orientation disparities in youth homelessness.

Homelessness and Health Care Disparities Among Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Youth

One study reported that somewhere between 30 and 40 percent of homeless youths identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender. A NUMBER OF recent studies on lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth have come up with some startling statistics. One study reported that somewhere between 30% and 40% of homeless youths identify as LGBT (Corliss, Goodenow, Nichols, & Austin, 2011). Researchers from the Children's Hospital Boston and the Harvard Medical School suggest that this may be because LGBT youths are more often kicked out of their homes than straight youths, or even if they are not kicked out, they may feel so uncomfortable that they leave. The study identified two distinct groups that make up the population of homeless children and youths in the United States: (a) families with children and (b) unaccompanied youths. The first group has been estimated to be more than 1.5 million U.S. children living within families that lacked a permanent home during the period of 2005 and 2006. The second group was estimated to be an additional 575,000 to 1.6 million U.S. youths living without a home and without a family, unaccompanied on the streets or in a shelter (National Center on Family Homelessness, 2009). The researchers used data from the Massachusetts Youth Risk Behavior Survey, which contains information on homeless status and sexual orientation to estimate the prevalence of homelessness in sexual minority adolescents. The researchers defined homelessness as lacking a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence. Several factors associated with greater risk for homelessness were found to occur more frequently in youths with minority sexual orientation than in heterosexual youths. The researchers documented a higher risk of familial maltreatment among

Do Homeless Veterans Have the Same Needs and Outcomes as Non-Veterans?

Although veterans have been found to be at increased risk for homelessness as compared to non-veterans, it is not clear whether those who are homeless have more severe health problems or poorer outcomes in community-based supported housing. This observational study compared 162 chronically homeless veterans to 388 non-veterans enrolled in a national-supported housing initiative over a 1-year period. Results showed that veterans tended to be older, were more likely to be in the Vietnam era age group, to be male, and were more likely to have completed high school than other chronically homeless adults. There were no differences between veterans and non-veterans on housing or clinical status at baseline or at follow-up, but both groups showed significant improvement over time. These findings suggest that the greater risk of homelessness among veterans does not translate into more severe problems or treatment outcomes. Supported housing programs are similarly effective for veterans and non-veterans.

Unmet needs and antisocial personality disorder among Black African and Caribbean service users with severe mental illness

PurposeThe main objective of the study is to investigate unmet needs of Black African and Caribbean Heritage (BAH) patients with and without a concurrent diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD).Design/methodology/approachA total of 79 participants were recruited from ten psychiatric inpatient wards across two hospital sites in South London. Personality disorder was assessed using the SCID‐II for DSM‐IV, the prevalence of unmet needs was assessed by The Camberwell Assessment of Need Short Assessment Schedule and substance misuse problems measured using well validated drug and alcohol use disorder identification tools.FindingsThe presence of a concurrent ASPD was independently associated with a greater number of unmet needs. ASPD was associated with lower qualifications and a greater risk of homelessness and substance misuse. Unmet need was associated with lower qualifications and substance misuse. In a stepwise linear regression model alcohol dependence and drug misuse were the most significant predictors of unmet need.Research limitations/implicationsFurther research is required to identify the reasons why these needs are not being met and establish reasons for these patients' high‐dropout rates from treatment.Practical implicationsThe present findings suggest BAH psychiatric inpatients with ASPD are at greater risk of alcohol dependence and drug misuse and report a greater number of unmet needs thus requiring a greater volume of services; however, current services are not meeting these needs. Mental health teams should ensure thorough needs assessment procedures are incorporated into general psychiatric service practice ensuring effective treatment packages are tailored to these patients needs.Originality/valueThe research identifies a previously under‐researched sub‐group of psychiatric inpatients with a high proportion of unmet health and social needs and suggests further research to develop service improvements supporting their management.

Jail Incarceration, Homelessness, and Mental Health: A National Study

Jail Incarceration, Homelessness, and Mental Health: A National Study

Jail Incarceration, Homelessness, and Mental Health: A National Study

This study sought to investigate the rates and correlates of homelessness, especially mental illness, among adult jail inmates. Data from a national survey of jail inmates (N=6,953) were used to compare the proportion of jail inmates who had been homeless in the previous year with the proportion of persons in the general population who had been homeless in the previous year, after standardization to the age, race and ethnicity, and gender distribution of the jail sample. Logistic regression was then used to examine the extent to which homelessness among jail inmates was associated with factors such as symptoms or treatment of mental illness, previous criminal justice involvement, specific recent crimes, and demographic characteristics. Inmates who had been homeless (that is, those who reported an episode of homelessness anytime in the year before incarceration) made up 15.3% of the U.S. jail population, or 7.5 to 11.3 times the standardized estimate of 1.36% to 2.03% in the general U.S. adult population. In comparison with other inmates, those who had been homeless were more likely to be currently incarcerated for a property crime, but they were also more likely to have past criminal justice system involvement for both nonviolent and violent offenses, to have mental health and substance abuse problems, to be less educated, and to be unemployed. Recent homelessness was 7.5 to 11.3 times more common among jail inmates than in the general population. Homelessness and incarceration appear to increase the risk of each other, and these factors seem to be mediated by mental illness and substance abuse, as well as by disadvantageous sociodemographic characteristics.

Overrepresentation of women veterans among homeless women.

This study estimated the proportion of veterans among homeless women and their risk of homelessness relative to that of nonveterans. Data came from 2 surveys of homeless women (1 clinical and 1 nonclinical) and 1 survey of domiciled women. The proportion of veterans (4.4%, 3.1%) among homeless women was greater than the proportion among domiciled women (1.3%, 1.2%). When we computed odds ratios for being a veteran among homeless women compared with nonhomeless women, homeless women were significantly more likely than nonhomeless women to be veterans. Women veterans are at greater risk for homelessness than are nonveterans. Further study is needed to determine whether increased risks for veterans are a product of military service or reflect volunteers' self-selection into the armed forces.

Social Support of Homeless and Permanently Housed Low-Income Mothers with Young Children

SOCIAL SUPPORT OF HOMELESS AND PERMANENTLY HOUSED LOW-INCOME MOTHERS WITH YOUNG CHILDREN* Bethany L Letiecq, Elaine A. Anderson, and Sally A. Koblinsky** The present study compared the social support of 92 homeless and 115 permanently housed low-income mothers. Results revealed that homeless mothers were significantly less contact with their friends/relatives, could count on fewer people for help and child care times of need, and felt their social networks were less helpful raising their families than housed mothers. Further, longer stays homelessness were predictive of less helpful social networks, which may hinder a family's return to permanent housing. Implications of these findings and recommendations for family service providers are discussed. When considering the problem of homelessness, many Americans think of the stereotypical skid row bums, the IV-drug users, or perhaps the mentally ill living on the sidewalks begging for change from passers-by. However, today's homeless population is also made up of a less visible group-that of women with young children. Since the early 1980s, families with children have been the fastest growing segment of the homeless population; by 1993, they accounted for 43% of all homeless individuals (U.S. Conference of Mayors, 1993). The recent emergence of family homelessness has resulted several studies documenting family homelessness as a social problem (Bassuk, 1991; McChesney, 1990; Weinreb & Buckner, 1993), describing the characteristics of homeless families (Bassuk, Rubin, & Lauriat, 1986), and examining the effects of homelessness on children (Rafferty & Shinn, 1991). An increasing body of research has also investigated why family homelessness occurs. At the macrosocial level, McChesney (1992) and others (Rossi, 1989; Wright, 1989) have suggested that the root cause of homelessness is the lack of affordable housing. However, McChesney (1992) also has identified several family- or individuallevel factors that may place poor families at greater risk of homelessness, including limited social support. Approximately 20 years ago, researchers began focusing attention on the importance of social support to psychological well-being (Caplan, 1979; Cobb, 1976). Having others to turn to for help times of need may enhance subjective well-being, facilitate coping with stress, and strengthen parental functioning (McLoyd, 1990; Rook, 1984). Social support networks may provide a safety net for families at risk of becoming homeless, and thus help to keep these families permanently housed (Bassuk & Rosenberg, 1988; McChesney, 1992). Likewise, support provided by family, friends, and social service agencies may play a critical role helping homeless families return to self-sufficiency. However, to date, there is no clear understanding of the nature and role of social support networks among homeless families with children. Information is needed about the types of social support that homeless families perceive to be available and actually receive and about whether there are differences the support experienced by homeless families and their low-income housed peers. To shed light on these issues, the current study compared the social support of homeless and permanently housed low-income families with young children. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Social Support Concepts Although there have been important advances the study of social support over the last decade (Gottlieb, 1981; Sarason & Sarason, 1985), there has been continued debate about the meaning of the term. Definitions have been so vague, broad, and diverse that social support has been described as in danger of losing its distinctiveness (Barrera, 1986, p. 414). To provide a more precise framework for investigating social support, Barrera (1986) identified three distinct concepts. The first, social embeddedness, refers to the connections that individuals have to significant others their social network. …

Elderly and Disabled - A Double Risk Group

AbstractIn an effort to identify multiple risk factors that may contribute to the disabled elderly being at greater risk of homelessness than the nondisabled elderly, housing and household characteristics of both groups were compared. It can be inferred from this study that the disabled elderly were shown to be at greater risk than the nondisabled elderly for reasons of poor health, physical and/or mental conditions that limit work, minority status, household crowding, and limited financial assets as implied by lower valued housing, residence in public housing, and receipt of heat subsidies.