Greater Attachment Security Research Articles

Parent-Child Attachment Security and Depressive Symptoms in Early Adolescence: The Mediating Roles of Gratitude and Forgiveness.

Although greater parent-child attachment security is linked with children's lower levels of depressive symptoms, little research has evaluated potential explanatory mechanisms. We investigated whether dispositional gratitude and interpersonal forgiveness explain the relation between attachment security with parents and early adolescents' depressive symptoms. Early adolescents (N = 105; M age = 12.3 years; 51% girls) completed questionnaires assessing their attachment security to mother and father figures, depressive symptoms, and dispositional gratitude, and an interview assessing interpersonal forgiveness. Results revealed that greater attachment security to mothers and fathers was associated with fewer depressive symptoms and greater levels of dispositional gratitude and interpersonal forgiveness. Further, dispositional gratitude and interpersonal forgiveness were negatively associated with depressive symptoms. Dispositional gratitude emerged as a mediator between attachment security with each parent and depressive symptoms. Our findings suggest that greater parent-child security may promote early adolescents' appreciation of positive events, which in turn may relate to fewer depressive symptoms.

Associations between Prenatal Factors and Self-Reported Emotional Availability at 3- and 6-Months Postpartum

Positive perceptions of pregnancy are associated with better postpartum outcomes, including stronger relationship with baby. Although better self-reported emotional availability (EA-SR) is associated with greater attachment security with infants, research has not yet explored the relationship between prenatal maternal factors and EA-SR. The aim of the study was to explore the associations between prenatal variables (adult attachment, shame, compassion) and EA-SR at 3- and 6-months postpartum. A cross-sectional survey design based on a convenience sample of pregnant Australian women completed the survey at three time points: pregnancy (3rd trimester, n = 133), and again at 3- (n = 65) and 6-months (n = 40) postpartum. Five, 5-step, hierarchical multiple regressions revealed the model (mean maternal age/prenatal attachment/shame/compassion/psychological adjustment) significantly explained 62% in self-reported maternal hostility, 53% in self-reported child involvement, and 52% in self-reported mutual attunement, at 6-months postpartum. Higher levels of prenatal internal shame were related to less self-reported child involvement (p = 0.04), and more self-reported maternal hostility (p = 0.03), at 3-months postpartum. More prenatal giving compassion was associated with better self-reported affect quality at 3- (p = 0.01) and 6-months postpartum (p = 0.01), and less self-reported hostility (p = 0.02) at 6-months postpartum. Greater understanding of the relationship between prenatal factors and EA-SR may help enhance prenatal care pathways to support women and families at risk of adverse postpartum outcomes.

Evaluating the impact of a time orientation intervention on well-being during the COVID-19 lockdown: past, present or future?

ABSTRACT Lockdown policies brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic pose a threat to well-being. This study examined the effectiveness of three positive psychology interventions, with different time-orientations, on well-being as well as predictors of well-being during lockdown. Participants (n= 261) completed measures of lockdown characteristics, attachment orientation, and emotion regulation, were then randomly allocated to one of four interventions; nostalgia (past), gratitude (present), best possible self (BPS; future) or control (recalling a TV show), and completed outcome measures of well-being and affect. Results showed that BPS resulted in higher positive affect and that both BPS and gratitude resulted in higher social connectedness than the nostalgia intervention. Further, greater well-being during lockdown was predicted by greater attachment security, greater emotion regulation, and more social interactions. In sum, focusing on the present or future during lockdown is more effective for well-being than focusing on the past, which alongside trait characteristics predict well-being under lockdown.

Problematic Domains of Romantic Relationships as a Function of Attachment Insecurity and Gender

Theoretically, securely attached adults view the world as safe and see their romantic partners as emotionally available, supportive, and non‐threatening. Little is known, however, about which relationship domains are most problematic for securely (versus insecurely) attached adults. To fill this gap, we asked 62 adults in committed relationships to complete the Marital Satisfaction Inventory‐Revised (MSI‐R; Snyder, 1997), a measure of the frequency and severity of 10 kinds of couple problems, and the Experiences in Close Relationships‐Revised (ECR‐R; Fraley, Waller, & Brennan, 2000), a measure of attachment insecurity. High Avoidance and Anxiety were associated with numerous relationship problems being rated as frequent and severe. A canonical correlation showed that 26.5% of the variance in the set of relational problem areas was accounted for by attachment insecurity and gender. While greater attachment security was associated with fewer perceived difficulties in affective communication, irrespective of gender, greater Avoidance and Anxiety were associated with more difficulties in this area. Female participants with high Anxiety (and low Avoidance) reported more global relationship and family‐of‐origin distress, but fewer financial disagreements and less difficult problem‐solving communication; conversely, male participants with high Avoidance (and low Anxiety) reported more financial disagreements and difficult problem‐solving communication, but less global relationship and family‐of‐origin distress. These results have implications for practice by suggesting ways in which couples’ attachment dynamics can become manifested in specific kinds of relational difficulties.

Nostalgia proneness and empathy: Generality, underlying mechanism, and implications for prosocial behavior.

Nostalgia is a sentimental longing for one's past. We examined the hypotheses (rooted in attachment theory and research) that nostalgia prone individuals, by virtue of their greater attachment security, are more empathic and enact more prosocial behavior. In five studies, testing 1,923 participants (Nrange =132-823, 52.42% women, Agerange =8-90years), we measured nostalgia proneness and affective empathy. Additionally, we measured cognitive empathy in Study 3, attachment security in Studies 4-5, and prosocial behavior in Study 5. Nostalgia proneness was positively related to affective empathy among younger and older adults (Studies 1, 3-5) and among children (Study 2). This association was stronger for affective empathy than cognitive empathy (Study 3). Also, attachment security mediated the relation between nostalgia proneness and affective empathy (Studies 4-5). Finally, nostalgia prone individuals were more likely to engage in prosocial behavior, and this relation was serially mediated by attachment security and affective empathy (Study 5). The findings establish the empathic and prosocial character of nostalgia prone individuals, and clarify their personality profile.

Child attachment security in gay father surrogacy families: Parents as safe havens and secure bases during middle childhood

ABSTRACTChild attachment security and utilization of parents as safe havens and secure bases were compared in 33 surrogacy children with gay fathers and 37 donor-conceived children with lesbian mothers during middle childhood. Assessments included data coded from parent–child interactions, interviews, and questionnaires administered to children and both parents. Findings indicated that children of gay fathers perceived high attachment security and their scores did not differ from those of children with lesbian mothers or from normative scores of children with heterosexual parents. Children’s greater attachment security was associated with higher levels of parental warmth, responsiveness, and willingness to serve as an attachment figure; lower levels of parental negative control and rejection; and the child’s younger age. Finally, children used the primary attachment figure more as a safe haven and the secondary attachment more as a secure base, though they reported high levels of both types of support from both parents.

The role of couple sleep concordance in sleep quality: Attachment as a moderator of associations.

Despite most American adults sharing a bed with a romantic partner, sleep research has examined sleep primarily as an individual behaviour. A growing body of research indicates that couple bed sharing may have an impact on sleep quality, but the current study is the first to examine whether such associations may differ based on attachment security. A sample of 179 cohabiting heterosexual couples completed daily sleep diaries and surveys of their attachment security, avoidance and anxiety. Data were analysed using multilevel modelling. Greater attachment security and lower attachment avoidance were associated with greater subjective sleep quality. Greater sleep concordance (time in bed with partners) was associated with better subjective sleep quality for women with lower attachment security and higher attachment avoidance. Findings suggest that couple bed sharing may benefit the subjective sleep quality of women who have lower attachment security.

Adolescent Female Aggression: Functions and Etiology

ABSTRACTDespite the narrowing gap between male and female use of aggressive behavior, much of the extant aggression research has centered on males. Various internal, or psychological factors, including attachment, emotion regulation, and impulsivity, are typically examined independently from external, or social, factors, such as the quality of the family environment and exposure to community violence. Additionally, the studies rarely distinguish among forms and functions of aggression. The current study was the first to simultaneously examine these factors and their relationships to the distinct functions of aggression in a low-income urban community sample of adolescent females. Participants (N = 214) were recruited from grades 8 through 12 at a diverse all-girls public school in a city in the northeastern United States. Results indicated that greater attachment security and emotion regulation reduced the impact of a more negative family environment upon the use of reactive and proactive aggression. The results also demonstrated that impulsivity and the family environment mediated the relationships between exposure to community violence and the presence of reactive aggression. With higher levels of impulsivity, an increased use of reactive aggression was demonstrated. Lastly, in the context of greater exposure to community violence, a positive family environment decreased the use of reactive aggression. Overall, the results from this study suggested the role of these internal and external factors in the development of aggressive behavior in female adolescents. Further empirical experimental investigation may shed light on the most optimal interventions to prevent the development of aggression.

Child–Mother Attachment Security and Child Characteristics as Joint Contributors to Young Children's Coping in a Challenging Situation

Moderate challenges provide opportunities for young children to develop coping skills, yet little is known about factors related to individual differences in early coping. This study investigated child–mother attachment security (9‐point rating) assessed via a modified Strange Situation procedure, child expressive language, and child social fearfulness as contributors to coping responses among 33‐month‐old children (N = 128, 66 girls) following receipt of an empty gift box. Associations between child–mother attachment security and child coping were moderated by child characteristics. As hypothesized, greater attachment security was associated with more action towards the stressor (i.e. vocalizing about the empty box and searching for the missing gift), but only for children high on social fearfulness. Further, greater attachment security was associated with seeking more physical proximity to mothers for children low on expressive language and less physical proximity for children high on expressive language. Lastly, greater attachment security was related to more self‐distraction for children with moderate to high expressive language. Results are discussed in terms of child–mother attachment security as a psychological resource constructed over time, which the child may draw upon when confronted with a moderate non‐attachment‐related stressor. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Breast cancer screening: The role of attachment

Attachment style is the dispositional way in which a person relates to others, and differences in attachment characteristics may offer insight into why many women do not adhere to breast screening guidelines. While mammograms involve contact with medical professionals, breast self-examination (BSE) does not, and may be preferable for women who dislike interpersonal vulnerability. As such, differences in the attachment characteristics that predict mammography versus BSE utilisation may indicate whether attachment related motivations are relevant to both interpersonal examinations and independent self-care behaviours. The current report examined how attachment dimensions predicted the frequency of mammography and BSE in a sample of 1204 ethnically diverse women from Brooklyn, New York. Participants completed measures of mammography and BSE frequency, and attachment, together with demographic, health care context and emotional predictors of screening. Multiple regressions showed that attachment dimensions predicted both mammography and BSE screening even when controlling for established predictors and emotion relevant variables. As hypothesised, fearful avoidance predicted fewer mammograms and BSEs, while preoccupation predicted more frequent BSEs. Consistent with some prior work in male cancer screening, greater attachment security also predicted fewer mammograms while degree of dismissiveness was not associated with screening frequencies. Understanding the psychosocial predictors of screening may help identify low screeners, and guide the development of targeted interventions that are better suited to the interpersonal preferences of older women.

An Attachment Perspective on Therapeutic Processes and Outcomes

Over the past decade, there has been an explosion of interest in clinical applications of attachment theory. In the present article, we briefly describe John Bowlby's model of therapeutic change, the therapeutic relationship, and the therapist's role in emotional healing. We then review empirical evidence for three key propositions in Bowlby's model. First, a client's sense of security during therapy is crucial for facilitating therapeutic work. Second, a therapist's own sense of security contributes to positive therapeutic outcomes. Third, attachment insecurities can be effectively reduced in therapy, and movement toward greater attachment security is central to achieving favorable therapeutic outcomes. In sum, research evidence confirms the importance of establishing what Bowlby called a safe haven and a secure base within a therapeutic relationship.

Child anger proneness moderates associations between child-mother attachment security and child behavior with mothers at 33 months.

Child-mother attachment security, assessed via a modified Strange Situation procedure (Cassidy & Marvin, with the MacArthur Attachment Working Group, 1992), and parent-reported child proneness to anger were examined as correlates of observed child behavior toward mothers during a series of interactive tasks (N = 120, 60 girls). Controlling for maternal sensitivity and child gender and expressive language ability, greater attachment security, and lower levels of anger proneness were related to more child responsiveness to maternal requests and suggestions during play and snack sessions. As hypothesized, anger proneness also moderated several security-behavior associations. Greater attachment security was related to (a) more committed compliance during clean-up and snack-delay tasks for children high on anger proneness, (b) more self-assertiveness during play and snack for children moderate or high on anger proneness, and (c) more help-seeking during play and snack for children moderate or low on anger proneness. Findings further our understanding of the behavioral correlates of child-mother attachment security assessed during late toddlerhood via the Cassidy-Marvin system and underscore child anger proneness as a moderator of attachment-related differences in child behavior during this developmental period.

The relationship between adult attachment style and therapeutic alliance in individual psychotherapy: A meta-analytic review.

The present study examined the relationship between adult attachment style and therapeutic alliance in individual psychotherapy. Search procedures yielded 17 independent samples (total N = 886, average n = 52, standard deviation = 24) for inclusion in the meta-analysis. Results indicated that greater attachment security was associated with stronger therapeutic alliances, whereas greater attachment insecurity was associated with weaker therapeutic alliances, with an overall weighted effect size of r = .17, p < .001 (95% confidence interval = .10-.23). Publication bias analyses did not indicate any cause for concern regarding the results. The data were not demonstrably heterogeneous (Q = 6.10, df = 16, p = .99), and all between-study moderator analyses were nonsignificant (p values > .10) with the exception of the source of alliance ratings; results indicated that patient-rated alliance demonstrated a significantly larger relationship with attachment compared with therapist-rated alliance (Qbetween = 3.95, df = 1, p = .047). Implications for clinical practice and future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved).

Attachment and emotion in school-aged children.

One of the primary functions of the attachment behavioral system is to regulate emotional experience under conditions of threat. Although research supports this association among infants and adults, few studies examine the relation between emotion and attachment in middle childhood. This study examined the concurrent associations among children's attachment organization and three indices of emotion reactivity/regulation: self- and parent-assessments of emotion, neuroendocrine reactivity, and fear-potentiated startle response. Ninety-seven 8- to 12-year-old children completed the Child Attachment Interview (CAI) and a fear-potentiated startle paradigm on separate occasions, with salivary cortisol assessed before and after each assessment. Greater attachment security was related to greater child-reported positive trait- and state-level emotion, lower pre-CAI cortisol levels, higher initial startle magnitude during threat, and a faster decrease in startle magnitude during threat. The findings provide initial support that attachment security is related to select measures of emotion, though different methods of assessment yielded discrepant findings. The findings are discussed in terms of their contribution to theory and research examining attachment and emotion.

Gay, Lesbian, and Heterosexual Adoptive Parents: Couple and Relationship Issues

This study explored some dynamics of couples’ relationships in 106 adoptive families headed by 29 gay, 27 lesbian, and 50 heterosexual couples with young children. Regardless of sexual orientation, most couples reported long-term relationships, secure attachments, and high relationship satisfaction. Parental sexual orientation was related to how often couples reported having sex. Lesbian couples reported having sex the least often, while gay couples reported having sex the most often. Sexual relationship satisfaction did not, however, differ as a function of parental sexual orientation. Overall relationship satisfaction was significantly correlated with sexual satisfaction, frequency of sexual relations, and greater attachment security. We discuss these results in context of earlier research on sexual orientation, parenting, and couple relationships.

Observed and reported supportive coparenting as predictors of infant–mother and infant–father attachment security

This study examined associations between supportive coparenting and infant–mother and infant–father attachment security. Observed and parent‐reported coparenting, and observed maternal and paternal sensitivity were assessed in a sample of 68 families with 3.5‐month‐old infants. Infant–mother and infant–father attachment security were assessed in the Strange Situation Procedure at 12 and 13 months of age, respectively. Observed and reported supportive coparenting were associated with greater attachment security in the infant–father, but not the infant–mother, attachment relationship. The link between observed coparenting and infant–father attachment remained after accounting for paternal sensitivity. Furthermore, child gender moderated some associations between coparenting and infant–parent attachment security. Amongst families with boys, observed and reported supportive coparenting were related to greater infant–mother and infant–father attachment security, respectively. Coparenting was unrelated to infant–mother or infant–father attachment security amongst families with girls. Results highlight a possible link between the coparental and father–child relationships and the need to consider both parent and child gender when examining associations between family functioning and attachment.

A primer on meta-analysis of correlation coefficients: The relationship between patient-reported therapeutic alliance and adult attachment style as an illustration

The aim of this article is twofold: to offer an introduction to meta-analysis using correlation coefficients to facilitate greater understanding of meta-analytic findings and to guide those interested in conducting meta-analyses. The authors review calculations for a weighted average effect size, the statistical significance of this effect, a test of homogeneity, confidence intervals, and file drawer analysis. They provide a running example of the relationship between patient-reported therapeutic alliance and adult attachment style. Results (k = 12, N = 581.17, weighted average r = .17, p < .0001, 95% confidence interval=.13–.21) indicated a positive, statistically significant relationship, suggesting that greater attachment security is associated with stronger therapeutic alliances, whereas greater attachment insecurity is associated with weaker therapeutic alliances. File drawer results suggested that some caution is warranted in terms of the size of the effect.

Forecasting friendship: How marital quality, maternal mood, and attachment security are linked to children's peer relationships

Mothers' perceptions of marital quality and depressed mood and children's attachment security and friendship quality were assessed in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. One month after their birth and again when the children were 3 and 4 years old and in first and third grades, mothers rated the quality of their marital relationship; when the children were 2 years old, the Attachment Q-Set was used to assess the mother–child attachment relationship; the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale was used to measure the mother's depressed mood when the child was 2 years old and in third grade; and when children were in fourth grade, they were observed interacting with their best friend to assess friendship quality. Using a series of regression and path analyses, we determined whether and how marital quality, maternal mood, and attachment security predicted friendship quality. Better quality friendship interactions in fourth grade were significantly associated with better marital quality and greater attachment security. The association between marital quality and friendship quality was partially mediated by attachment security. Friendship quality was not related to maternal mood.

Narrative assessment of attachment representations: Links between secure base scripts and adolescent attachment

We explored the notion that adolescents possess mental secure base scripts of attachment-related events and examined, for the first time, whether these scripts were linked to adolescent attachment security. Results indicated that adolescents possessed a general script for mother and for father, and that they drew upon these scripts across different contexts. Adolescents' scripts for mother and for father were related, but only the scripts for mother predicted unique variance in adolescents' scripts for nonspecific others. Moreover, greater attachment security (as measured by the Adult Attachment Interview; AAI) was linked to greater access to and knowledge of secure base scripts for mothers, fathers, and nonspecific others. Only mother scripts, however, predicted unique variance in adolescents' AAI coherence of mind scores. Adolescents' romantic-attachment avoidance and anxiety scores (as assessed using the Experiences in Close Relationship Inventory) were linked negatively to scripts for mothers and nonspecific others, respectively.

Attachment, Perceptions of Interaction, and Relationship Adjustment

This study examined the hypothesis that perceptions of interaction in intimate relationships would mediate the association between attachment organization and relationship satisfaction. A multi-ethnic group of 159 male and 226 female community college students completed questionnaires regarding attachment organization and aspects of their intimate relationships. Greater attachment security and less activation of the attachment system were associated with perceptions of more affiliative interaction (R = .45, p&lt;.001) and less distress (R = .43, p&lt;.001) in the relationship. Perceptions of more affiliative interaction were strongly associated with less relationship distress (R = .69, p&lt;.001). When attachment factors and interaction factors were entered jointly in the regression for relationship distress, the association between attachment and relationship distress was substantially reduced. This analysis supported the hypothesis of a mediation effect. The mediation effect was less complete for women than for men. The association of attachment factors with relationship distress was more direct in relationships that were at relatively early stages of development. Over all comparisons, the inclusion of subjects with a conventionalized response set inflated Rs2 by an average of 3 percent.