Great Pyramid Research Articles

Structural Integrity – Historical developments through millennia

In this contribution, historical aspects through millennia of structural integrity development are presented, starting from the Great Pyramids in antient Egypt. Special attention is paid to the history of bridges, made of wood and stone in antient and medieval time, then from different kinds of iron and steel following the first Industrial revolution and finally by concrete, be it reinforced or pre-stresses, in modern times. The focus of this contribution is on bridges restoration, reconstruction and preservation as part of the world heritage. Two case studies are described, the old stone bridge in Mostar (Bosnia and Herzegovina) and a historical iron bridge in Transylvania (Romania). In the second case structural integrity analysis was performed in the form of Engineering Critical Assessment, to provide a solution for retrofitting the historical riveted steel bridge. This paper is dedicated to the memory of Prof. Stojan Sedmak (1929-2014), one of the fathers of the fracture mechanics in Southeast Europe. Motivation for our research is the paper published 12 years ago on the significance and applicability of structural integrity assessment, Sedmak et al (2012), which was based on the presentation at the Tenth Meeting “New Trends in Fatigue and Fracture” (NT2F10) in Metz, France, 2010.

The Speed of Light Numbers Revealed by the Length in Meters of the Great Pyramid Chambers and Passage Systems

The Speed of Light Numbers Revealed by the Length in Meters of the Great Pyramid Chambers and Passage Systems

COMPARISON OF IPHONE 13 PRO'S CAMERA AND LIDAR SENSOR TO UAS PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MODEL OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA

Abstract. Digital documentation of historical sites has always required the use of expensive professional grade sensors capable of collecting large amounts of data to reconstruct cultural sites. These types of projects generally require large budgets and a large team of specialists to successfully generate a digital model. However, with smart devices having sensors capable of mapping on the go, the potential for mapping such historical sites may be more accessible. This study aims to conduct a comprehensive comparison between the iPhone 13 Pro and the Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) photogrammetric model of the Great Pyramid of Giza, otherwise known as the Khufu pyramid, located in Giza, Egypt. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the potential of the iPhone 13 Pro's Camera and LiDAR sensor capabilities as a valuable tool for documenting and preserving cultural heritage sites. To accomplish this, data was captured from multiple positions around the pyramid using the Pix4Dcatch app on the iPhone 13 Pro, and the data was processed using Pix4Dmatic to generate a 3D point cloud of the pyramid. This point cloud data is then compared to the reference data obtained through the UAS mapping which generated a 3D photogrammetric model. The comparison aims to identify the strengths and weaknesses of using the iPhone 13 Pro for this type of scanning and to assess the accuracy and precision of the generated data.

Discussion of the Non-Destructive Testing Possibilities for the Study of the Great Pyramid of Giza

Many constructions built by ancient civilization hold many mysteries and attract the attention of historians, archaeologists and tourists from all over the world. The most famous and enigmatical among them is the Great (Khufu’s-Cheops’) Pyramid on the Giza plateau in Egypt. The assignment, construction methods and especially the inside structure of the Pyramid have been the cause of heated debate among historians and researchers since ancient times. Unfortunately, not only researchers are interested in ancient structures and excavation sites of archaeological values, but also robbers and illegal seekers of archaeological values. This led to the partial destruction of the Pyramid by the order of the Arab caliph Al-Ma’mun in the 9th century AD. From the middle of the last century, the point of view has prevailed that only non-destructive testing methods are acceptable when examining ancient structures. In the 1960s, a technology was proposed for transilluminating the pyramids of Giza by muons, which are generated by cosmic rays in the Earth’s atmosphere. This method gave promising results. Other means were also proposed, which include radar, as well as gravitational and vibration technologies. However, despite numerous attempts to use them, no significant success or discovery has been achieved. A discussion of these methods, their applications and partial successes is the subject of this article.

ScanPyramids project: Overview on the Validity and Limitations of Non-destructive Techniques

In 2017, ScanPyramids project (www.scanpyramids.org) published a paper in Nature (Morishima et al., 2017) revealing the discovery of a big void (ScanPyramids Big Void BV) observed with nuclear emulsion films (Muography), it has a cross-section similar to that of the Grand Gallery and a minimum length of 30 meters situated above the Grand Gallery. In addition, a geometrically non-identified void in the Northern Face of the Pyramid (ScanPyramids Northern Face Corridor SP-NFC) was detected as well in 2017 followed by further detailed and focused muography measurements up to 2022 (Morishima and Procureur et al., 2023). ScanPyramids SP-NFC corridor has been investigated in more detail with a wider set of non-destructive techniques. The result of GPR, Ultrasonic and image fusion detected precisely the location and shape of ScanPyramids SP-NFC (Elkarmoty and Rupfle et al.,2023). In this paper, we present overview on the application of Muography, Ground Penetrating Radar, Ultrasonic Tomography, and Electrical Resistivity Tomography on the Chevron of the Great Pyramid where ScanPyramids SPNFC is located behind. The objective of the NDT measurements is to detect the geometry, location, orientation, and extension of ScanPyramids SP-NFC with more than one NDT method. The paper addresses the validity and limitations of each method used providing the limitations of each technique in this particular case study.

Transport chains in the time of the Egyptian Pharaohs: a still unknown organizational efficiency

The Egypt of the Pharaohs has been the subject of a huge deal of research by historians, archaeologists, and engineering specialists over the past decades. The construction of immense pyramids is largely the focus of attention insofar as it bears witness to the human genius capable of erecting monuments that have survived the millennia. The question of the logistics management involved in these majestic constructions is still little known, or at least rarely addressed. It is however undeniable that without a perfect organization of transport chains, the construction of the pyramids could not have been achieved. This article uses the example of the Great Pyramid of Giza to illustrate this point, the importance of which must be recognized by researchers specializing in management science.

Resolving the 1886 White Terraces riddle in the Taupō Volcanic Zone

Among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, only the Great Pyramid of Giza survives. Yet there is another, older than the seven, that was found and then lost again in the 19th century and once more located by the research herein: the White Terraces, named Te Tarata by indigenous peoples, of the Taupō Volcanic Zone in New Zealand. The greatest geoscience and tourist attractions in the southern hemisphere were the siliceous Pink and White Terraces. European, American, and British tourists bypassed the calcareous terraces at Saturnia, Yellowstone, and Pamukkale for the long sea voyage down to New Zealand. The 1886 Mount Tarawera eruption buried the siliceous terraces, decimating their indigenous owners and their tourism. An eruption crater lake now occupies much of the Rotomahana Basin in the Taupō Volcanic Zone, leading to assumptions that the Terraces were lost. However, no evidence was produced. The indigenous Māori owners did not believe they were lost. Controversy ensued. The resolution of this controversy is of economic and cultural importance as well as scientific interest. In 2011, a joint New Zealand-American project claimed to have found the Pink and White Terraces underwater in crater lake but produced no sinter samples. Recently, their claims were refuted. In Europe, terrestrial survey documents were unearthed, including compass bearings to the terraces by the German geologist Ferdinand Hochstetter. His survey records were digitally repatriated, and the reconstruction of his 1859 survey showed that the terrace springs lay outside the eruption crater. This renewed research in the Rotomahana Basin which has resolved the controversy. By studying topography and with the aid of Māori navigation knowledge, the geographic coordinates of the White Terraces have been triangulated and lie on land, on the shoreline outside the 1886 crater. Surprisingly, this evidence demonstrates that the White Terraces could have been located after the 1886 eruption by observation of the Rotomahana Basin with mapping available since 1864. Exploration and excavation of the Terraces are now possible. Even if degraded by the 1886 eruption, the White Terraces may earn a World Heritage listing and a second life in global tourism.

The Great Step Pyramid of Djoser: History, Geology and Nanoplankton Content from its Rock Casing

The Great Step Pyramid of Djoser: History, Geology and Nanoplankton Content from its Rock Casing

Review: Ripples of the Universe: Spirituality in Sedona, Arizona, by Susannah Crockford

Review: <i>Ripples of the Universe: Spirituality in Sedona, Arizona</i>, by Susannah Crockford

Persuasion by Projection: Charles Piazzi Smyth and the Performance of Scientific Expertise

In 1864, Charles Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer-Royal for Scotland, set out to measure the Great Pyramid of Giza in order to prove that its design had been devised by none other than God himself. Smyth’s actions and conclusions were informed by the work of John Taylor, a book publisher who sought to thwart Britain’s adoption of the French metric system by demonstrating that the Great Pyramid was a storehouse of sacred measurements from which the English inch originated. As an eccentric but otherwise respected scientist, Smyth was no stranger to the procedure of having a theory vetted by the academic community. In addition to authoring several books on the subject of Pyramid Metrology, he employed the photographic lantern slide to disseminate the boldest idea he had ever proposed. Initially performed before learned societies, Smyth’s lectures became so popular with fringe movements, such as British-Israelism, that he eventually engaged a Manchester photographer to reproduce his slides for public sale. Through a study of extant lecture transcripts and glass slides, this article examines how Smyth’s photographs were imbricated in a rhetoric of persuasion that was grounded in the performance of scientific knowledge.

The Concavity of the Great Pyramid Can Be Derived from Inward Sloping Courses Needed for the Stability

The Great Pyramid has the character of concavity that each of its four faces is slightly indented along its central line. Applying the geometry on an inclined plane, we show that this concavity could be derived from its inner structure of inward sloping courses gently inclined towards the center of each course, at about 11 degrees to the horizontal, i.e., the slope 1/5 by the ratio of “rise over run”. We explain why the inclined layers together with the reinforced base were necessary for the long-term stability of the Pyramid against the severe natural forces like the high gravitational compression, earthquakes and rainstorms, pointing out the feasible fact that the Pyramid has experienced severe rainstorms more than 500 times during the 4500 years. The crucial point about stability is that the effects of such natural forces are quite different between the core of inclined courses and that of truly level courses in the sense that the former can be tightened to become stronger over time, but the latter would be disintegrated to be weaker over time. Scaled-down models of the Pyramid are introduced to understand the large-scale dynamics of the Pyramid. In particular, the small model reduced by 10-3 helps us to imagine the transformation of vertical into lateral forces, pointed out by Mendelssohn. On the other hand, the Step Pyramid of Djoser can be identified almost as the half-sized model of the Great Pyramid when the Great Pyramid was assumed to be composed only of truly level courses. And this identification tells the fate of the Great Pyramid only of truly level courses that it would have almost collapsed until now like the Step Pyramid before the recent restoration.

Deriving the Planck length from the light second – A thought experiment on the Sphinx and the great pyramid

Deriving the Planck length from the light second – A thought experiment on the Sphinx and the great pyramid

Magic ramie rope for the tug-of-war game

The tug of war is a sport known for strength, however a weaker team can also win the game by a suitable team co-operation. A mathematical model is established, showing that the team co-operation or rhythmical frequency plays an important role in victory. A team can win even the rope is pulled to the opposite direction depending upon the rhythmical frequency. A criterion for rhythmical frequency is obtain to guarantee victory when the strength is almost same for both teams. Additionally the rope pulling can be also used for moving a heavy weight object, the principle might be used for building the great pyramids in ancient Egypt. Finally magic ramie ropes with special thermoplastic properties and controllable frequency are discussed.

The Great Pyramid at Giza is a 60-degree Pyramid According to Early Authors' Writings

The Great Pyramid at Giza is a 60-degree Pyramid According to Early Authors' Writings

Synthetic Aperture Radar Doppler Tomography Reveals Details of Undiscovered High-Resolution Internal Structure of the Great Pyramid of Giza

A problem with synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is that due to the poor penetrating action of electromagnetic waves inside solid bodies, the capability to observe inside distributed targets is precluded. Under these conditions, imaging action is provided only on the surface of distributed targets. The present work describes an imaging method based on the analysis of micro-movements on the Khnum-Khufu Pyramid, which are usually generated by background seismic waves. The obtained results prove to be very promising, as high-resolution full 3D tomographic imaging of the pyramid’s interior and subsurface was achieved. Khnum-Khufu becomes transparent when observed in the micro-movement domain. Based on this novelty, we have completely reconstructed internal objects, observing and measuring structures that have never been discovered before. The experimental results are estimated by processing series of SAR images from the second-generation Italian COSMO-SkyMed satellite system, demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed method.

Myths and Realities of the Salt Lake Temple Foundation

Myths and Realities of the Salt Lake Temple Foundation

An indigenous inland genotype of the black yeast Hortaea werneckii inhabiting the great pyramid of Giza, Egypt.

Within the context of cultural heritage conservation, the biological study of tangible archeological sites is an important task to extend their existence and strengthen the transmission of their cultural value to future generations. In Egypt, a hyper-arid region, a microcolonial fungus with inky black growth was observed on a stone surface in the royal corridor of the Great Pyramid of Giza (King Khufu’s pyramid). The isolate was studied and characterized by microscopic morphometric measurements, evaluation of enzymatic activities, and genotyping techniques. The isolate was identified as Hortaea werneckii, a pleomorphic black yeast that naturally inhabits hypersaline environments and infects human skin. It has been reported from humid temperate, subtropical, and tropical zones, mainly from marine habitats and adjacent areas, and is associated with marine life. Since it was observed in an unusual habitat, it raises the question of its type and origin, whether environmental or clinical. The Egyptian Hortaea werneckii GPS5 isolate was profiled and characterized by adaptive extremophilic tolerance to arid salt stress, low portability to infect human skin, and the capability of solubilizing calcite; besides it was phylogenetically clustered with previous recorded environmental accessions. A profile that matches the biodeterioration fungal agents known as rock-inhabiting fungi, a potential threat to cultural heritage sites that requires attention and prevention plans.

Transmission Mysteries: Art and Technophilia

Transmission Mysteries: Art and Technophilia

Reproduction of the acoustic effect of the Kukulkan pyramid by delay effect in DAW

The Mayan city of Chichen Itza is full of legends and mysticism. There, in the temple of Kukulkan, in front of a great pyramid with 91 central staircases, an interesting physical-acoustic phenomenon occurs that has fed mythical stories attributed to the Mayas. When clapping your hands in front of the steps, the echo sounds very different from the sound emitted: The echo presents a ‘tonality’ that resembles a kind of bird chirping (chirp) which is said to be the response of the Quetzal, sacred bird of the Mayas. Earlier work has discussed the convolution method to find a simulation of the spectrum of the echo sound captured at Kukulkan. In this article we are going to present an analysis of the reflected sound using the wave superposition method, and thus obtain a sound with musical ‘Pitch’ as a result of the superposition of multiple reflections of a percussive sound, using the AUDACITY audio software, as demonstrated in the supplementary material.

The discovery of the “muons-chamber” in the Great pyramid; could high-precision microgravimetry also map the chamber?

In this study we have investigated the question as to whether highly accurate microgravimetric measurements on the side of a pyramid could also map the recently discovered “muon chamber” in the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt. Exploiting the technical capabilities of modern gravimeters, we performed three-dimensional model calculations with realistic model parameters obtained from published literature. Under ideal experimental conditions researchers are able to measure relatively small gravity effects around −1 × 10−7 ms−2. However, to transfer the model scenario to investigating the real-world pyramid chamber we need to know what the chamber may contain – such knowledge can help in estimating a more realistic result.