Grassy Field Research Articles

MORPHOLOGICAL AND NRDNA-ITS SEQUENCES-BASED IDENTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF VOLVOPLUTEUS EARLEI IN PAKISTAN

Volvopluteus is represented by seven species distributed in America, Asia and Europe. They occur in the tropical regions growing as saprobes on wood debris and leaves, in grassy fields and forests. To explore the macrofungal diversity, different localities in Punjab were visited and collections were made. Among these several collections were found similar to Volvopluteus species. They were analyzed morphologically and phylogenetically using ITS sequences of nrDNA. Comparative analysis on the basis of morphological and anatomical features revealed that these collections represent V. earlei . Maximum likelihood phylogeny also showed the position of current sequences in a same clade with already known V. earlei sequences with 74% bootstrap value. Volvopluteus earlei is being described from different areas of Pakistan with variety of climatic conditions from warm semi-arid climate of Kasur, Lahore and Sheikhupura districts, humid subtropical climate of Sialkot district, in Punjab and warm semi-arid to humid subtropical climate of Swat district, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The occurrence of V. earlei in different climatic zones represents its wide distribution range and ecological amplitude in the country.

Feline Forensics: Revealing the Unique Decomposition of Cats.

Limited data about the differences between the decomposition of animals with fur exist within the forensic veterinary medicine discipline. Due to the sheer number of animals used as animal models and the number of animals that exist, determining stages of decomposition that are applicable for all species is difficult. Typically, assessing what stage of decomposition a decedent is in is subjective due to the visual assessment of decomposition changes. A method developed to rectify this issue was the total body score (TBS) method, which assigns a numerical value based on the degree of decomposition to the head, torso, and limbs. The purpose of this study was to examine the decomposition of cats, identify any unique decomposition characteristics, and determine the rate of decomposition using total body score and accumulated degree days (ADDs). Twelve domestic short-haired cats were placed in a grassy field in West Lafayette, IN. An assessment of TBS was documented for each cat and each experimental group. An exponential relationship between TBS and ADD was documented. Overall, there was not a significant difference in the rate of decomposition or total body scores between the groups (Z = -91.00, p = 0.0672).

Step-point sampling for broadleaved species’ ground cover estimation in pastures – an evaluation of Cockayne’s point on a boot toecap method

ABSTRACT Step-point sampling, conceived by plant ecologist Dr Leonard Cockayne in ca. 1925 as a method for measuring the ground cover of species in New Zealand’s modified tussock grasslands utilises a point marked on the observer’s boot toecap. It is resource-efficient compared to other vegetation sampling methods and here we report on a unique evaluation of its accuracy and precision. The estimated cover of Taraxacum officinale in a grassy field (11%) was not significantly different from that obtained using line-point sampling (13%), but higher than that from line-intercept sampling (5.7%). It was unaffected across an order-of-magnitude range of sampling intensity (1600 to 160 observations/ha) and was acceptably precise with ≥ 400 observations/ha, although increased linearly with observation point size. These empirical results were supported by computer simulations enabling both accuracy and precision to be evaluated along with plant architecture. The simulations indicated that step-point sampling with ca. 400 observations per ha and an observation point diameter ≤ 1.1 cm (1.0 cm2), can provide ground cover estimates for a wide range of broadleaved species in pastures that are sufficiently accurate and precise for common pasture management applications. The method is deployed in the phone application, ‘Grassland Cover Estimator’ available at https://www.agresearch.co.nz/search?q = Grassland + cover + estimator.

Initial blow fly (Diptera: Calliphoridae) colonization of cats (Felis catus) in Indiana.

Many disciplines are utilized within the field of veterinary forensic sciences, including forensic entomology. Understanding the initial colonization period by flies of forensic importance can contribute to estimating the minimum postmortem interval. There is limited data regarding the time of colonization of animals with fur, and the interpretation of this data is difficult due to the variation in animal models used. The purpose of this study was to examine the initial insect colonization of cats (Felis catus), with light and dark fur. Twelve domestic short-haired cats were placed in cages 15.2 m apart in a grassy field in West Lafayette, IN, United States. Weather data (temperature, precipitation, sun/cloud exposure, humidity), insect activity, time to oviposition, and decomposition changes were documented. Eggs from initial oviposition events were collected and reared to identify the primary colonizing species. Although the time of first oviposition event was not different between the treatments, fur color did affect fly colonization, and cats with dark fur had more oviposition events than cats with light fur (t = 2.639, df = 4, P = 0.029). Three species of Lucilia (Diptera: Calliphoridae) colonized the cats on the initial day of placement. Further studies in cats should include the decompositional studies to understand the unique characteristics that occur during each stage of decomposition, which could aid in developing a scoring system for animals with fur. Additional studies could include analyzing how fur length would affect colonization.

Lucilia silvarum Meigen (Diptera: Calliphoridae) Is a Primary Colonizer of Domestic Cats (Felis catus).

Lucilia silvarum Meigen (Diptera: Calliphoridae) is widespread throughout North America and Europe. Described in 1826, this blow fly was quickly associated with myiasis in amphibians, and to date has rarely been reported in carrion. There is limited data regarding the time of colonization of animals with fur and the interpretation of this data is difficult due to variation in the animal models used. During an examination of initial insect colonization of cats (Felis catus) with light and dark fur, twelve domestic short-haired cats were placed in cages 15.2 m apart in a grassy field in West Lafayette, Indiana, USA. Eggs from initial oviposition events were collected and reared to identify the colonizing species. Three species of Lucilia (Diptera: Calliphoridae), including L. silvarum, colonized the cats on the initial day of placement. In this study, L. silvarum was the primary colonizer of cats, and this may be the first study where a large number of L. silvarum were collected. Further studies should include development studies on L. silvarum to understand its life history and aid in time of colonization estimations. More work regarding the colonization of furred mammals is needed to further examine L. silvarum as a primary colonizer.

Evaluating the potential of agri-environmental measures (AEM) in mitigating biodiversity loss due to land consolidation in China: Understanding the function of linear habitats

Semi-natural habitats (SNHs) surrounding agricultural fields contribute significantly to biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. SNHs can be divided into large habitat patches such as contiguous patches of forests, and smaller, interspersed linear habitat types such as grassy field margins. Traditional small-holder agricultural farmlands in China, replete with rich linear habitats, are notably beneficial for biodiversity. However, as these farmlands undergo consolidation to enhance the efficiency of machinery, linear habitats are being removed, a process that could adversely affect biodiversity. Appropriate agri-environmental measures (AEM), such as the restoration of field margins via strategic planting, could serve as an effective countermeasure to maintain biodiversity in consolidated land. This paper discusses how biodiversity monitoring can aid in evaluating the impact of land consolidation and the efficacy of AEM in China, from species richness and species composition perspectives. The paper also discusses the function of linear habitats and how they interact with large habitat patches in promoting biodiversity, while noting that outcomes are likely to vary among taxa. Long-term, multiple-taxa and comprehensive assessments are recommended in further studies, and a collaborative approach that involves multiple stakeholders is essential to ensure a success implication of AEM in China.

Field margins enhance weed seed predation in adjacent fields in early spring

Seed depletion by granivorous organisms can regulate weeds in arable agriculture. Enhancing this regulation can be achieved by adopting farming practices that favour seed predators. Here, we test the hypothesis that the presence of grassy field margins along field edges will increase in-field weed seed predation, in comparison to situations where no grassy field margin is present. Predation cards with Poa annua were exposed in 15 wheat fields in May and June 2018 along 57 transects at distances of 4, 8, 16, 32 meters from the field edge. Cards were either caged (predation by invertebrates) or uncaged predation byall seed predators). We found that in May, the presence of grassy field margins led to higher in-field predation rates at all distances from the field edge, with a very high contribution of invertebrates to seed predation. In June, the presence of grass margin had no impact on in-field seed predation, to which invertebrates and vertebrates contributed equally. This preliminary study provides some support to the hypothesis that grassy field margins augment in-field weed seed predation in early spring. It is plausible that these habitats are emergence sites for invertebrates, with a subsequent high abundance of adults nearby grass margins in early spring, before they disperse more widely across fields and/or switch to alternative prey. These results call for further comparative research on the impact of grass margins on seed predation, seed predators and alternative prey during the whole cropping season.

The impact of field margins on biological pest control: a meta-analysis

Floral field margins are known to benefit invertebrate species diversity and abundance within agricultural landscapes, but variation in success limits widespread uptake. Understanding how variation within floral field margins can affect certain entomological groupings is lacking but would allow for a more individualised design of margins to enhance biological control. This meta-analysis aims to answer the question; do floral field margins benefit biological pest control over grassy field margins? We found that floral margins significantly benefit the natural enemy community and biological control services, relative to non-floral grass margins. We confirm that field margin type is linked to higher abundance and diversity of natural enemies, lower numbers of herbivorous invertebrate pests, and reduced crop damage. We consider whether specific characterisations of natural enemies and pest communities vary between these margin types, finding key differences in the abundances of aerial and epigeal enemies, the diversity of parasitoid and predatory enemies and pest abundances found in naturally regenerating and sown floral field margins. The finding here cements the implementation of floral field margins as a legitimate control method for crop pests in the face of losses due to pesticides and highlights design and management considerations for the success of floral margins.

Hitting the Road: Haplotype Diversity of Fire Ants Nesting on Disturbed Atlantic Forest Habitats.

Ants of the genus Solenopsis are globally distributed, presenting high diversity and many generalist species. In South America, the dominant species is Solenopsis saevissima (Smith, 1855), commonly found nesting in grassy fields surrounding humanized areas. In spite of being so common, there has been no research evaluating the effect of human disturbances on the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotype diversity in this species. In this context, we here characterized the mtDNA haplotype diversity in S. saevissima nests by highway roadsides, dust roads, and forest borders of Atlantic Forest, based on partial sequences of cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI). Based on the facts that the species is a rapid colonizer of disturbed habitats, we specifically probed how the genetic diversity of native S. saevissima is impacted by highways and roads infrastructure expanding around the rainforest. Species diagnosis was established both by morphological characters and obtained mtDNA COI sequences. Overall, the species exhibited high haplotypes and nucleotide diversity, particularly around forest borders; though all haplotypes seemed closely related across the different habitats. We identified seven mitochondrial haplotypes (H1 to H7), where haplotype H1 was exclusively found in highway roadside nests, and H7 on dust roads; the remaining haplotypes were recorded from all habitats. Haplotype H1 was geographically isolated to the south of the Atlantic Forest, supporting previous suggestions that it acts as a biogeographical barrier. The pattern is suggestive of a recent species expansion, probably resulting from extensive habitat fragmentation. Taken together, our data demonstrates fire ant haplotypes prevailing in some anthropized habitats, characterizing how a native species lining the remnants of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest might be a concern for environmental conservation.

Weak evidence for biocontrol spillover from both flower strips and grassy field margins in conventional cereals

Agri-environment measures such as flower strips are considered fundamental instruments to reduce farmland biodiversity loss. Their effect on associated ecosystem services, such as biocontrol of crop pests, has received increased attention in recent discussions on the ecological intensification of agriculture, to create a win-win situation for biodiversity and production. However, studies of flower strips are rarely compared to the status quo, namely permanent field margins. We assessed the impact of two different field margin types (pre-existing grassy field margins vs. perennial flower strips) and distance decay effects from the field margins towards field centres on two major cereal pests (cereal leaf beetles and cereal aphids), their natural enemies (predators and aphid parasitoids) and crop yield on five conventional farms in Germany. Proximity to both types of field margin enhanced the enemy-to-pest ratio for cereal leaf beetles but not for aphids. However, the parasitism rate for aphids was higher next to grassy strips than next to flower strips. Yield also tended to be higher adjacent to flower strips (although not significantly) and showed no variation with distance to the field margin. Our findings paint a more nuanced picture than most previous studies: whilst field margins generally had a positive impact on one of the studied biocontrol agents, flower strips do not outperform the standard grassy margins currently in place. To promote biocontrol services, we recommend protecting existing, permanent grassy strips through the EU Common Agricultural Policy as a cost-effective alternative to flower strips.

EFFECT OF NOZZLE ORIENTATION ON DISPERSION OF TRUCK MOUNTED ULTRA LOW VOLUME SPRAY AT DIFFERENT HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES

A field evaluation study was conducted to understand the dispersion of spray from a truck-mounted ultra-low-volume (ULV) sprayer when released with the nozzle oriented at the conventional angle of 45° in addition to 22° and 0° with respect to ground surface. The study was conducted in an open grassy field at the Anastasia Mosquito Control District by applying Aqualuer™ 20-20 at the highest label application rate. Mortality of caged female Aedes aegypti was tested at 1.5, 3.0, 6.0, and 8.5 m heights at 0, 30, 60, and 90 m from the spray line. Spray trials were conducted during early morning hours and all test groups were replicated three times over different days. During these evaluations higher mortality was recorded from the 22° and 0° nozzle orientations up to 30 m from the spray line and at heights up to 3 m. The conventional nozzle orientation of 45° provided the greatest mortality 30 m from application source at heights of 6.0 and 8.5 m.

The Future Is Furby

The Future Is Furby

Local variability of a taiga snow cover due to vegetation and microtopography

ABSTRACT The taiga snow cover accumulates in relatively stable and windless weather. This should produce a uniform snow cover with continuous, laterally homogeneous stratigraphy and snow properties when the snow is deposited on a level, smooth substrate. However, such substrates are rare, and local variations in vegetation and ground surface topography alter the structure of the snow cover and produce irregular snow layers. In this study, we investigated the effects of vegetation, microtopography, and microclimatic variability on the taiga snow near Fairbanks, Alaska. Through the winter of 2019–2020, in situ measurements were made at three locations with distinctly different local microtopographic features and radically different (but typical) vegetation. One site was an open grassy field, the second a mature spruce forest, and the third a birch forest located on thermokarst terrain with steep microrelief where ice wedges had degraded. Widely different canopy interception processes proved to have the strongest impact on the resulting snow cover heterogeneity by altering the initial deposition, with surface microtopography having the second strongest influence through postdepositional processes. In this article, we suggest a conceptual framework for understanding and modeling taiga snow variability in terms of the vegetation and microtopography that created it.

EFFECT OF SOME DIFFERENT METHODS AND NATURAL ENEMIES ON THE CONTROL OF THE APHID OF SOME HERBOGY GRASS FIELD CROPS IN NEPAL

The study dealt with methods of controlling aphids on some grassy field crops in Nepal. The aphids are considered a dangerous sucking piercing insect because they feed on plant sap and attack all parts of the plant and cause damage to it also transmit different viruses. The insects' spreads in bothEgypt and Nepal, where the climatic conditions are similar in both countries, which prompted farmers to use multiple methods to control this insect because of the special importance of the grass field crops and where a large percentage of the population depends on them.There are many ways to control aphids, biologically, chemically, and others. One of the most important methods of combating this insect is integrated pest management (IPM). This controlling strategy depends on the rational useof both physical and mechanical control, chemical and biological control, and organizational and legislative control in a way that achieves the goal of its use and maintains the ecological balance.To accomplish this, it is necessary to persuade farmers to use alternative methods to combat natural enemies, particularly aphids, in addition to planting new pest- and disease-resistant plant varieties, exploiting the available natural resources and exploiting environmental factors to eliminate pests, as well as raising their awareness of the effective time and appropriate time to spray pesticides in the proper way, as well as the precautions to be taken into account when spraying and information related to chemical control, as well as their skill in using other control methods and evaluating these uses in control, especially aphids.

Combination of organic farming and flower strips in agricultural landscapes – A feasible method to maximise functional diversity of plant traits related to pollination

Agri-environment schemes (AES) are valuable instruments to support pollination in agricultural landscapes. Evaluating AES based on their effects on pollinators has high practical relevance for agricultural production and nature conservation. In our two-year assessment, we studied the effectiveness of two AES (organic farming vs flower strips) on plant traits associated with pollinator attraction (flower size, colour, and ultraviolet pattern) and reward accessibility (flowering duration, and nectar quantity). We selected ten landscapes along a landscape-scale field size gradient in Central Germany. Three types of winter wheat fields (organic, and conventional fields with and without flower strips) were chosen in each landscape. We sampled the vegetation in transects designated in characteristic field parts, i.e. grassy margins, field edges (or flower strips), and field interiors in the growing seasons of 2016 and 2017. We calculated community-weighted means and functional diversity of plant traits and tested the effects of field size, management, and within-field position with linear mixed-effects models. We showed that organic fields and flower strips provided more abundant and functionally more diverse flowers than conventional fields. Flower strips were superior with the highest insect-pollinated plant cover and the highest ratio of plants with flowers showing ultraviolet patterns. Although grassy margins next to flower strips harboured twice as many species as those without flower strips, this positive effect did not emerge in conventional field interiors. Landscape configuration expressed as mean field size did not affect pollination traits in our study. Our results highlighted that both organic farming and flower strips maintained abundant and functionally diverse insect-pollinated flora, and thus they can potentially support larger pollinator communities. However, only organic farming could maintain high functional diversity of pollination-related plant traits in field interiors. Hence flower strips and organic farming in combination might be a good option for sustaining diverse pollinator communities and their services. • Organic fields and annual wildflower strips can boost pollinator-friendly flora. • Plant pollination trait diversity is high in both agro-environmental schemes. • Both schemes can supposedly maintain high pollination ecosystem service. • There is little spill-over from flower strips to intensive field interiors. • Plant functional diversity of grassy field margins benefited from flower strips.

Surface deployment of DAS systems: Coupling strategies and comparisons to geophone data

AbstractDistributed acoustic sensing (DAS) systems are a recent technological development for seismic observations over a broad range of frequencies with a wide variety of applications. Typically, fibre‐optic cables are buried underground or cemented into well casings where the cables are well‐coupled to the ground. Quick and temporary surface deployment of cables has great potential utility in areas where rapid surveying and minimal disturbance of the subsurface are desired. However, proper mechanical coupling between the fibre and the ground is still a challenge for temporary surface deployments. Here we test four different coupling strategies for a DAS system deployed in a grassy field, including uncoupled, pinned under tension to the ground, weighted down by carpeting, and weighted down by a sandbag. We compare the DAS data to vertical component geophone data and estimated horizontal geophone data to assess the fidelity of DAS ground motion recordings. We find a completely uncoupled fibre is capable of recording seismic energy up to ∼10 m away from the source, while the pinned and weighted fibre record signals over several tens of metres. The DAS recordings compare favourably with the estimated horizontal displacement records from the multi‐channel seismic system. There is a good agreement between the phase of the signals acquired by the DAS system with that of the geophones, but there is a mismatch of up to a factor of two in the absolute amplitude at some frequencies. We perform several standard analysis techniques, including refraction and multi‐channel analysis of surface waves, on the coupled DAS data. Finally, the instrument response of the coupled DAS data to ground motions is determined using the estimated horizontal component from the multi‐channel seismic system. Surface deployments of DAS systems provide a complementary set of observations to standard vertical geophone deployments, for instance, if multi‐component geophones are not available. Also, there are some advantages in speed and ease of deployment of DAS in comparison to geophones depending on the coupling strategy used.

Biological Flora of Britain and Ireland:Knautia arvensis

AbstractThis account presents information on all aspects of the biology ofKnautia arvensis(L.) Coult. (Field Scabious) that are relevant to understanding its ecological characteristics and behaviour. The main topics are presented within the standard framework of theBiological Flora of Britain and Ireland: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characters, herbivores and disease, history and conservation.Knautia arvensisis a perennial hemicryptophyte, with a tap root system, and bluish‐lilac inflorescences. It is native in Britain. It occurs predominantly on well‐drained to moderately dry soils such as dry grassy fields, pastures, roadsides and dry hedge banks. It has a vast Eurasian native distribution.Reproduction occurs through the production of seeds and rhizomes, thoughK. arvensispossesses very limited clonal growth. It has a gynodioecious breeding system. Flowers are nectariferous and insect pollinated, showing sexual dimorphism in several traits. The hermaphroditic flowers are protandrous and self‐compatible. Flowers are mainly pollinated by butterflies (Lepidoptera), Hymenoptera, Coleoptera and Diptera.Knautiais a genus noteworthy for its high occurrence of hybridisation and polyploidy.Knautia arvensishas the widest distribution within the genus, and hybridisation both within members of the same group and with taxa of other groups is frequently reported.Although declining in natural habitats within England,K. arvensisis increasingly being sown within wildflower seed mixtures used in restoration schemes across the country, as it is a late flowering species that provides a good source of nectar for pollinators.

Responses of selected beetle families (Carabidae, Chrysomelidae, Curculionidae) to non-crop habitats in an agricultural landscape

Agricultural intensification has caused a simplification of agricultural landscapes, accompanied by increasing field sizes and a reduction of non-crop habitats. To mitigate negative impacts of intensification, it is necessary to understand to what extent different non-crop habitats contribute to the maintenance of biodiversity in agroecosystems. Here, we compared the taxonomic diversity of three beetle families among four habitat types—wheat fields, grassy field margins, wildflower-sown areas under power poles, and permanent grassland fallows, in an agricultural landscape in western Germany. Carabidae were caught by pitfall trapping, Chrysomelidae and Curculionidae by suction sampling. We found surprisingly little variation among habitat types, though the rarefied species number tended to be higher in grassland fallows and field margins than under power poles and in wheat fields. Nevertheless, species assemblages differed substantially among habitat types. In Carabidae, grassland fallows were dominated by hygrophilous species with poor dispersal ability as opposed to all other habitat types being dominated by open landscape species with high dispersal ability. In Chrysomelidae and Curculionidae, power pole islands differed from the other habitat types with predominantly open landscape species, whereas wheat fields and grassland fallows were clearly dominated by eurytopic species. Our results thus highlight the need for a combination of different conservation measures for enhancing the functional diversity of beetle assemblages.

Increasing landscape complexity enhances species richness of farmland arthropods, agri-environment schemes also abundance – A meta-analysis

Intensification of agricultural production and simplification of landscape structure have negatively affected arthropod communities, in particular since the end of Second World War. Agri-environment schemes may partly compensate for these losses and enhance arthropod populations, but their effectiveness is higher in simple landscapes rather than complex landscapes, characterized by a large proportion and diversity of semi-natural areas. As the landscape-scale species pool is known to drive local species richness, we tested our hypothesis that landscape complexity determines local arthropod species richness, whereas local management affects only arthropod abundance. Here we undertake a meta-analysis as part of a wider systematic review of the effects of land use heterogeneity on arthropod species richness. We searched for studies quantifying the effects of agri-environment schemes (e.g. wildflower strips/areas, grassy field margins, organic farming) and landscape complexity on arthropod richness and abundance. We additionally separated vegetation- vs. ground-dwelling taxa, because the effects were hypothesized to be greater in the more mobile vegetation-dwelling taxa. As expected, increasing landscape complexity enhanced arthropod richness, but not their abundance. Unexpectedly, agri-environment schemes did not only support the abundance of arthropods, but also their species richness. This pattern was driven by the vegetation-dwelling, not the ground-dwelling taxa, presumably because the higher mobility of vegetation-dwelling taxa allows faster responses to environmental changes. Our results show that agri-environment schemes in Europe benefit both arthropod abundance and species richness, whereas increasing landscape complexity primarily enhances species richness. This is why both local and landscape management need to be taken into account to halt current biodiversity losses in agricultural landscapes. Agri-environment schemes need to be implemented at a larger spatial and temporal scales to enhance landscape complexity, maintaining or restoring biodiversity sustainably.

Farmland biodiversity: wildflower-sown islands within arable fields and grassy field margins both promote spider diversity

Agricultural intensification and the concomitant landscape homogenization is leading to a worldwide decline in farmland biodiversity. Non-crop habitats in agroecosystems may counteract the loss of arthropods such as spiders and thus contribute to sustainable agriculture. However, the effectiveness of field margins and set-aside wildflower-sown patches in maintaining spider diversity is not well understood. Here, we investigated the effects of three different non-crop habitats, namely field margins, set-aside wildflower-sown patches under power poles (‘power pole islands’), and grassland fallows on spider diversity as compared to wheat fields in an agricultural landscape in western Germany. Using pitfall trapping and suction sampling, we show that species richness and overall conservation value were higher in non-crop habitats than in wheat fields. Interestingly, field margins and power pole islands differed from long-term grassland fallows only in conservation value, which was significantly higher in grassland fallows. Species assemblages differed considerably between grassland fallows, field margins and power pole islands, and wheat fields, documenting the added value of using different conservation strategies.Implications for insect conservationSmall-scale non-crop habitats adjacent to wheat fields were surprisingly effective in promoting spider diversity in an agricultural landscape, with field margins and power pole islands being equally effective. To maximize overall diversity in agricultural landscapes, we propose a combination of larger long-term fallows and smaller non-crop habitats such as field margins or set-aside wildflower-sown patches.