Graduated Driver Licensing Program Research Articles

Effectiveness of implementing a Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) law among young Serbian drivers

Introduction: Young novice drivers have higher rates of engagement in road crashes worldwide, often owing to unfavorable attitudes toward road safety or lack of knowledge, experience, and risk consciousness. However, the implementation of graduated driver licensing (GDL) systems has proven effective in reducing the high incidence of young drivers involved in crashes. Method: The purpose of this study was to compare the change in driving outcomes (e.g., attitudes toward traffic safety, behavior patterns while driving, risk assessment in traffic, assessment of personal driving skills, and involvement in traffic crashes) of young drivers prior to and following the implementation of a GDL law. Respondents (n = 642) completed a battery of questions, including a driver attitudes questionnaire (Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale), a self-assessed driving ability questionnaire, and a risk perception questionnaire. Of the total sample size, 324 drivers passed the old system of training driver’s license candidates, and 318 drivers passed the new GDL system. Results: The results showed that drivers licensed with GDL reported safer attitudes toward traffic rule violations and speed, and higher levels of safety orientation with regard to their driving abilities. They also reported much higher levels of risk perception and lower exposure to risky situations (risky driving exposure). There were no differences between GDL drivers and non-GDL drivers in terms of self-reported crashes or transient or fixed violations. In addition, GDL was not related to the number of traffic crashes, the number of fatalities, or serious and slight injuries in crashes involving young drivers in crashes obtained from official records. Conclusions: The results suggest that GDL contributed to the improvement of drivers’ attitudes and understanding of risk but did not contribute to significant changes in the behavior of young drivers and traffic crashes. In addition, the GDL program in Serbia only ranks fair on the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) scale. Strengthening the GDL program in Serbia with additional components in line with GDL programs rated as good by the IIHS scale could improve the safety of young and novice drivers in traffic.

Identifying modifiable factors related to novice adolescent driver fault in motor vehicle collisions

Objective Novice adolescent drivers have a higher propensity to engage in risky driving and are at higher odds of being involved in collisions. Graduated driver licensing programs have been instituted to help novice drivers gain experience while avoiding higher risk driving circumstances. This study examines modifiable risk factors contributing to novice adolescent driver fault in collisions. Methods Police traffic collision report data from municipalities in Alberta for the years 2010–2016, inclusive, were used. Fault in collision was assigned using an automated and previously validated tool for assigning culpability. Factors contributing to novice adolescent (16-19 years of age) fault in collision were examined using multivariable logistic regression. Results Novice adolescent drivers had higher adjusted odds ratios (aOR) of being at-fault in collision when driving from 01:00-05:00 (aOR = 1.38; 95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 1.26-1.50). Novice adolescent drivers had lower odds of fault when driving with an adult (aOR= 0.62; 95% CI: 0.57-0.68) or a single peer (aOR= 0.87; 95% CI: 0.80-0.94), but higher odds of causing a severe collision with a single peer present (aOR= 2.23; 95% CI: 1.21-4.11). Impairment of the teen driver was reported in 25% of all fatal collisions, and 40% of late-night fatal collisions. Conclusions The findings support policies that allow driving with a single adult or peer passenger during daytime hours. Driving during late-night hours should be restricted for novice adolescent drivers.

Understanding the contributing factors to young driver crashes: A comparison of crash profiles of three age groups

Despite the adoption of the Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) in 1998, the disproportionately high rate of young driver (15–24 years) crashes is still prevalent on Louisiana roadways. This paper utilizes the five years (2014–2018) crash data in Louisiana aiming to compare the crash profiles of three age groups (15–16 years, 17–19 years, and 20–24 years) to determine the contributing factors, crash characteristics, and severity outcomes. An extensive review of previous literature along with engineering judgments facilitated the understanding of the crash variables that were eventually used in the multinomial logit model with additional consideration of the current framework of the statewide GDL program. Results revealed that factors such as driving violation, distraction, passenger presence, time of crash, and driver protection system have been highlighted as the top ten predominant factors in multiple young driver groups. This study shows there is a ground for data-driven improvement for young drivers in Louisiana by presenting a broader view of a variety of issues based on the findings. Nighttime driving outside passenger restricted hours in GDL program, violations especially ‘failure to yield’, driving behaviors such as cellphone distraction especially in drivers aged 17–19 years and non-use of driver protection system across all young driver age groups are among the addressable key issues that may be influential in reducing young driver crashes. The study concludes that implementation of the GDL program would be more effective through continuous improvement and reevaluation of its components and strategic application of complementary young driver safety programs.

Blueprint for a Simulation Framework to Increase Driver Training Safety in North America: Case Study

Despite numerous recent advances in the classroom and in-vehicle driver training and education over the last quarter-century, traffic accidents remain a leading cause of mortality for young adults—particularly, those between the ages of 16 and 19. Obviously, despite recent advances in conventional driver training (e.g., classroom, in-vehicle, Graduated Driver Licensing programs), this remains a critical public safety and public health concern. As advanced vehicle technologies continue to evolve, so too does the unintended potential for mechanical, visual, and/or cognitive driver distraction and adverse safety events on national highways. For these reasons, a physics-based modeling and high-fidelity simulation have great potential to serve as a critical supplementary component of a near-future teen-driver training framework. Here, a case study is presented that examines the specification, development, and deployment of a “blueprint” for a simulation framework intended to increase driver training safety in North America. A multi-measure assessment of simulated driver performance was developed and instituted, including quantitative (e.g., simulator-measured), qualitative (e.g., evaluator-observed), and self-report metrics. Preliminary findings are presented, along with a summary of novel contributions through the deployment of the training framework, as well as planned improvements and suggestions for future directions.

Alcohol- and speeding-related fatal crashes among novice drivers age 18–20 not fully licensed at the time of the crash

IntroductionSome teens may intentionally delay their driving licensure until age 18 or later, thereby skipping the learning and driver safety benefits provided by graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs. Delaying driving initiation could elevate teen crash risk once they begin driving. This study compares the prevalence of alcohol use and speeding among individuals aged 18–20 y/o who were not fully licensed drivers (NFLD) at the time of the fatal crash with that of their fully licensed counterparts (FLD). Materials and methodsData came from the 2010–2017 Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS). Census data were added to measure mean household income at drivers’ zip code. Bivariate (chi-square) and logistic regressions were used to assess the likelihood young drivers were alcohol-positive and/or speeding at the time of the crash as a function of drivers’ license status, demographic, socioeconomic, and the strength of GDL programs in the state. ResultsCompared with females and White drivers age 18–20 y/o, males, Latino, and Black drivers were more likely to be NFLD at the time of the fatal crash (p < .0001). Living in zip codes with low median household income (p < .001) and the strength of GDL restrictions (p < .0001) were associated with individuals being NFLD at the time of the fatal crash. Alcohol-related fatal crashes were more prevalent among NFLD than FLD (p < .02). ConclusionsThe study provides indirect evidence suggesting that alcohol use may be more detrimental for NFLD than for FLD.

The effect of extending graduated driver licensing to older novice drivers in Indiana

Introduction: Graduated driver licensing (GDL) systems have been shown to reduce rates of crashes, injuries, and deaths of young novice drivers. However, approximately one in three new drivers in the United States obtain their first driver’s license at age 18 or older, and thus are exempt from most or all provisions of GDL in most states. Method: In July 2015, the state of Indiana updated its GDL program, extending its restrictions on driving at night and on carrying passengers during the first 6 months of independent driving, previously only applicable to new drivers younger than 18, to all newly-licensed drivers younger than 21 years of age. The current study examined monthly rates of crashes per licensed driver under the affected conditions (driving at night and driving with passengers) among Indiana drivers first licensed at ages 18, 19, and 20 under the updated GDL system compared with drivers licensed at the same ages under the previous GDL system. We used Poisson regression to estimate the association between the GDL system and crash rates, while attempting to control for other factors that might have also influenced crash rates. We used linear regression to estimate the association between the GDL system and the proportion of all crashes that occurred under conditions restricted by the GDL program. Results: Results showed, contrary to expectations, that rates of crashes during restricted nighttime hours and with passengers were higher among drivers licensed under the updated GDL system. This mirrored a statewide increase in crash rates among drivers of all ages over the study period and likely reflected increased overall driving exposure. The proportions of all crashes that were at night or with passengers did not change. Practical Applications: More research is needed to understand how older novice drivers respond when GDL systems originally designed for younger novice drivers are applied to them.

Teen driver licensure provisions, licensing, and vehicular fatalities

Between 1996 and 2015, vehicular fatalities per capita involving 16- to 17-year-old drivers declined by 68.7%. During this same period, states enacted teen driver licensure provisions in an á la carte fashion, now collectively referred to as graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs, that restricted teen driving. While the literature demonstrates that ‘good’ GDL programs reduce vehicular fatalities, how these reductions occur remains open. In this study, separate GDL provisions and no pass, no drive laws are studied to understand reduction mechanisms. The evaluation is based on a state-by-year panel and uses difference-in-difference and triple-difference specifications to identify causal impacts on rates of licensing, vehicular fatalities, and fatalities per licensee.The empirical results find that the minimum intermediate licensing age of 16.5 or older provision reduces licensing of 16- to 17-year-old teens by 20.1%, and no other licensure provision consistently impacts licensing. In addition, vehicular fatalities decrease from the minimum intermediate licensing age of 16.5 or older provision by 22.7%, the driver’s education reduces supervised hours provision by 5.9%, and no pass, no drive laws by 7.3%, while vehicular fatalities increase from the supervised driving hours required provision by 6.3%. Furthermore, only teen driver cellphone or texting bans have impacts on vehicular fatalities per 16- to 17-year-old licensed female and few long-term impacts are identified on those ages 18–20 who ‘graduated’ from licensing programs. This research suggests that GDL programs affect vehicular fatalities mostly through incapacitation, rather than programmatically.

Spatial variation in teens’ crash rate reduction following the implementation of a graduated driver licensing program in Michigan

Motor vehicle crashes are a leading cause of injury, and teen drivers contribute disproportionately to that burden. Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) programs are effective at reducing teen crash risk, but teen crash rates remain high. Between-state variation in the teen crash rate reduction following GDL implementation has been documented, but this is the first study to examine small-area variation in such a reduction. Fusing together crash data from the Michigan State Police, census data, and organizational data (alcohol outlet, movie theatre, and school locations), we analyzed spatial correlates of teen injury crash, and place-based features that modified the injury crash rate difference following GDL implementation. Specifically, using census-based units, we estimated changes in injury crash rates among teens using negative binomial regression controlling for spatial autocorrelation, and tested whether any measured spatial characteristics modified the crash rate change in the pre versus post GDL periods. There was a substantial reduction in teen crashes after GDL implementation (RR = 0.66, 95%CI: [0.65, 0.67]), and this effect was robust across gender and time-of-day (light/dark). We found evidence that this reduction varied across space; areas with more alcohol outlets corresponded to a larger daytime crash rate reduction post-GDL, while areas near schools corresponded to a smaller daytime crash rate reduction. Concentrations of movie theatres corresponded to larger post-GDL crash rate reductions after dark. Maximizing the substantial successes of GDL programs requires understanding why crash rate reductions were larger in some areas following GDL implementation, and harnessing that understanding to improve its effectiveness across a state, focusing on identifying priorities for improving driver training (e.g., by parents and driver educators), law enforcement, and future policy changes to current GDL laws.

“You’re so used to having someone tell you what to do”: Experiences of young drivers during the provisional licence phase

ObjectiveYoung drivers are at considerable risk of injury and fatality during the earliest years of independent driving (provisional/intermediate/restricted/probationary licence). Interventions such as graduated driver licensing (GDL) are designed to ameliorate this risk by allowing young drivers to gain on-road driving experience under conditions of reduced risk (eg., night-time passenger restrictions in Queensland, Australia). Consistent with systems thinking, to maximise the effectiveness of interventions such as GDL it is essential that experiences of young drivers is understood. The aim of the research is to explore the experiences of young drivers with a provisional driver’s licence, within the current young driver road safety system in Queensland. MethodsThirty-four drivers (17–18 years; mean = 17.6, mode = 17, 14 males) with a provisional licence attending two high schools (one public, n = 21, 9 males; one private) participated in a 45-minute group discussion during the school day. ResultsTwo themes emerged: (1) independence and (2) driving logistics. A wealth of experiences and advice pertaining to the sub-themes of psychosocial independence, transportation independence, driving skills and knowledge, interacting with other drivers, driving mistakes, and owning a vehicle were shared by young drivers. Numerous recommendations are made pertaining to each sub-theme, such as informing young drivers of the expense associated with independent mobility, effectively managing a road crash, and interacting safely with other drivers now there is no longer a driving supervisor sharing the journey with them. ConclusionsImportantly these findings apply to young drivers in all motorised jurisdictions, irrespective of whether they have implemented a graduated driver licensing program. The breadth of experiences – many of which placed the young driver at increased risk of harm – shared by the young drivers should be considered in refining the content and process not only of any novice licence phase during which independent driving occurs, such as the provisional phase, but also of the preceding learning-to-drive licence phase. To illustrate, greater exposure to driving hazards like driving with peer passengers and sharing the road with larger vehicles can be undertaken in circumstances of increased driving ‘independence’ (that is, under less direction) during the final stages of the learner licence. This pseudo-independent driving is an opportunity to develop skills and capabilities in the potentially-risky circumstances which the novice will soon traverse without a supervisor’s support.

Situation Awareness Fast-Tracking, Including Identifying Escape Routes (SAFER): Evaluation of the Impact of SAFER on Learner Driver Situation Awareness Skills

Despite a plethora of education, engineering, and enforcement-related intervention, the pernicious problem that is young driver road safety remains of global interest. Compared with more experienced drivers, young novice drivers have been found to have deficits in situation awareness skills (SAS), which is an essential repertoire of knowledge and abilities in perceiving, comprehending, and appropriately responding to a breadth of driving risks (projection). Current practice requirements in Queensland, Australia, do not incorporate SAS-specific training for parents, the most common supervisor of novice drivers. This study evaluates the impact of SAFER, a SAS-acquisition acceleration “game” in which parents foster SAS in their child during the period before licensure, on novice driver SAS at learner licensure. Sixty parent–pre-learner dyads were recruited from the Sunshine Coast and randomly allocated to intervention ( n = 30) and control ( n = 29). Using a SAS-based coding taxonomy, SAS was measured via simulator-based verbal commentary protocol at learner licensure as part of a larger longitudinal project. Intervention learners exhibited significantly greater SAS (perception/comprehension/projection of breadth of driving risks), than control learners. Intervention learners exhibited significantly less perception, and considerably greater perception/comprehension/projection SAS than intervention parents. Currently, in Queensland’s licensing program there is limited support for parents/other supervisors of learner drivers, and no SAS-focused intervention is available. SAFER is an innovative SAS-acquisition acceleration intervention that has been shown to build SAS even before the young novice is licensed to drive. A larger state-wide pilot is in development to explore the merit of incorporating SAFER within Queensland’s graduated driver licensing program.

Graduated driver licensing (GDL) in the United States in 2016: A literature review and commentary

This is the sixth in a series of reviews of research on graduated driver licensing (GDL) published in the Journal of Safety Research, the present review covering the period mid-2012 through 2016. In the two decades since GDL programs began to be introduced on a widespread basis in the United States, a vast amount of research has been published. The current review discusses recent research and the present state of knowledge on the following topics: characteristics of the novice driver population; effects of GDL on crashes for ages 16–19; the learner and intermediate periods; night and passenger restrictions; cellphone laws; GDL for older novices; enforcement of GDL rules; and programs attempting to influence GDL compliance and safe driving practices in general. GDL stands out as a successful policy for reducing teen driver crashes and is worth building on to extend its benefits. Strengthening existing GDL programs has the most potential for producing further crash reductions.

Description of Various Factors Contributing to Traffic Accidents in Youth and Measures Proposed to Alleviate Recurrence.

Traffic accidents are the leading cause of hospitalization in adolescence, with the 18–24-year-old age group accounting for 23% of deaths by traffic accidents. Recurrence rate is also high. One in four teenagers will have a relapse within the year following the first accident. Cognitive impairments known in adolescence could cause risky behaviors, defined as repetitive engagement in dangerous situations such as road accidents. Two categories of factors seem to be associated with traffic accidents: (1) factors specific to the traffic environment and (2) “human” factors, which seem to be the most influential. Moreover, the establishment of a stronger relation to high speed driving increases traffic accident risks and can also be intensified by sensation seeking. Other factors such as substance use (alcohol, drugs, and “binge drinking”) are also identified as risk factors. Furthermore, cell phone use while driving and attention deficit disorder with or without hyperactivity also seem to be important risk factors for car accidents. The family environment strongly influences a young person’s driving behavior. Some interventional driving strategies and preventive measures have reduced the risk of traffic accidents among young people, such as the graduated driver licensing program and advertising campaigns. So far, few therapeutic approaches have been implemented. Reason why, we decided to set up an innovative strategy consisting of a therapeutic postaccident group intervention, entitled the ECARR2 protocol, to prevent recurrence among adolescents and young adults identified at risk, taking into account the multiple risk factors.

Nonverbal communication during the learner lesson with a professional driving instructor: A novel investigation

BackgroundFundamental for the development of the driving and road use skills of the young driver is learning to drive through driving instruction and, in graduated driver licensing programs such as in Australia, driving supervision. In Queensland young drivers are required to log a minimum of 100h supervised practice, with recent research revealing that parents provide most of this supervision. Queensland also offers young drivers a 10-h 3-for-1 bonus for professional driving instruction, such that one hour of professional instruction can be logged as three hours of practice, to a maximum of 30 logbook hours. Recent research efforts have begun to provide insight into the nature of the verbal instruction of both parents and professional instructors, and into the nonverbal communication between parents and learners. However nothing is known regarding the nonverbal communication between professional instructors and learners. MethodTen learner lessons (five male learners) with four professional instructors (four males) were captured via GoPro cameras. The nonverbal communication during the first, middle, and last 10min of each lesson was coded as being posture and body orientation, gestures, facial expressions, proximity, humour, and eye contact, within the context of the accompanying verbal communication according to the value of (a) eager, or (b) cautious; the valence of (a) neutral, (b) positive, or (c) negative; and the purpose of (a) rapport, or (b) communication. ResultsOverall, posture and body orientation was the most common mechanism of nonverbal communication, while facial expressions and proximity were the least common mechanisms of nonverbal communication. In general the beginning, the middle, and the end of the lessons were characterised by a plethora of neutral, cautious interactions, and positive, eager interactions. However it is noteworthy that the rates at which learners and instructors engaged in these behaviours were found to change across the lesson. Specifically learners actively communication nonverbally through mechanisms such as eye contact, facial expressions and humour, while instructors appeared to manage building rapport and communicating safe vehicle and road use through nonverbal communication such as gestures, facial expressions and posture and body orientation, summarised in a model comprising a continuum of instruction. DiscussionWhile nonverbal communication is fundamental for effective verbal communication, and on occasion can replace verbal communication, and as such the professional – and the parental – driving lesson should optimise the use of nonverbal communication, at this time the optimal nature of nonverbal communication remains unknown. In addition, optimal verbal and nonverbal communication specifically suited to the driving context which involves a dynamic environment outside the vehicle, and at times a dynamic environment inside the vehicle, remains yet to be identified. The research findings provide unique insight into the nature of the nonverbal communication used by both learner drivers and professional driving instructors, in addition to the continuum of instruction model. As such, the findings provide a solid foundation for future research into, and guidance regarding, optimising the learner driving lesson.

Obstacles to engaging in young driver licensing: Perspectives of parents

IntroductionYoung novice drivers remain at greater risk of injury and death despite a wealth of interventions including graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs. The key to implementing safer practices inherent in GDL appears to lie with optimising the role of parents. This qualitative research explored the parent’s perspectives of obstacles to engaging in the driver licensing process within a GDL program. Parents also shared advice on what they found helpful, and where relevant, recommended changes in the process to enable safer practices for young drivers. MethodTwenty-three parents (aged 35–60 years, M=49.52, SD=8.01, 11 males) participated in semi-structured interviews regarding licensing experiences with their young driver children. The young drivers included learner (n=11), provisional (restricted/intermediate) (n=9) and open (unrestricted/full) licence drivers (n=3), ranging from 16 to 24 years (M=18.04, SD=2.21, 13 males). Findings and conclusionsContent analysis revealed that most obstacles were encountered at the learner licensing phase, with the parent-reported difficult temperament of the learner driver the most prominent. Unsurprisingly, advice to other parents to be patient and remain calm featured heavily during the same phase. Anxiety from not having control of the vehicle was another obstacle at the learner phase, translating to anxieties for child safety in the early stages of provisional driving. Recommendations for the current GDL included more rigorous road rule testing, with general support for the program, professional driver training at learner and provisional stages facilitated parental engagement through the licensing phases. Practical applicationsThe findings overwhelmingly suggest a need for parents to be educated regarding their importance in, and of, the driver licensing process, and the efficacy of their instruction, content and practices.

Young driver risky behaviour and predictors of crash risk in Australia, New Zealand and Colombia: Same but different?

Young drivers remain overrepresented in road crashes around the world, with road injury the leading cause of death among adolescents. In addition, the majority of road traffic crashes, fatalities and injuries occur in low- and middle-income countries. All young drivers are at risk due to a breadth of age- and inexperience-related factors; however it is well recognised that young drivers may also intentionally engage in risky driving behaviours which increase their crash risk. The aim of this paper is to examine the self-reported risky driving behaviour of young drivers in Australia, New Zealand (high-income countries), and Colombia (middle-income country), and to explore the utility of a crash risk assessment model in these three countries. Young drivers aged 16–25 years completed the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale (BYNDS), in addition to self-reporting crash involvement and driving offences. A hierarchical segmentation analysis via decision trees was used to study the relationship between self-reported crashes and risky driving. Young drivers in Colombia reported more risky driving than young drivers in New Zealand, and considerably more risky driving than young drivers in Australia. Significant differences among and across countries in individual BYNDS items were found, and 23.5% of all participants reported they had been involved in a road crash. Handheld mobile phone usage was the strongest predictor of crashes, followed by driving after drinking alcohol, and carrying friends as passengers. Country of origin predicted mobile phone usage, with New Zealand and Colombia grouped in the same decision tree branch which implies no significant differences in the behaviour between these countries. Despite cultural differences in licensing programs and enforcement, young drivers reported engaging in a similar breadth of risky behaviours. Road crashes were explained by mobile phone usage, drink driving and driving with passengers, suggesting interventions should target these three risk factors. Whilst New Zealand and Australia have implemented graduated driver licensing programs, are geographical neighbours, and are high-income countries, the finding that behaviours of young drivers in New Zealand and Colombia were more similar than those of young drivers in New Zealand and Australia merits further investigation.

Driving Under the Influence of Alcohol, Marijuana, and Alcohol and Marijuana Combined Among Persons Aged 16-25 Years - United States, 2002-2014.

Motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of death among youths and young adults aged 16-25 years in the United States (1). The prevalence of drinking and driving among high school students aged 16-19 years has declined by 54%, from 22.3% in 1991 to 10.3% in 2011 (2). However, the prevalence of weekend nighttime driving under the influence of marijuana (based on biochemical assays) among drivers aged ≥16 years has increased by 48%, from 8.6% in 2007 to 12.6% in 2013-2014 (3). Use of marijuana alone and in combination with alcohol has been shown to impair driving abilities (4-9). This report provides the most recent self-reported national estimates of driving under the influence of alcohol, marijuana, and alcohol and marijuana combined among persons aged 16-25 years, using data from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) from 2002-2014. Prevalence data on driving under the influence of both substances were examined for two age groups (16-20 years and 21-25 years) and by sex and race/ethnicity. During 2002-2014, the prevalence of driving under the influence of alcohol alone significantly declined by 59% among persons aged 16-20 years (from 16.2% in 2002 to 6.6% in 2014; p<0.001) and 38% among persons 21-25 years (from 29.1% in 2002 to 18.1% in 2014; p<0.001). In addition, the prevalence of driving under the influence of alcohol and marijuana combined significantly declined by 39%, from 2.3% in 2002 to 1.4% in 2014 (p<0.001) among persons aged 16-20 years and from 3.1% in 2002 to 1.9% in 2014 (p<0.001) among persons aged 21-25 years. The prevalence of driving under the influence of marijuana alone declined 18%, from 3.8% in 2002 to 3.1% in 2014 (p = 0.05) only among persons aged 16-20 years. Effective public safety interventions,* such as minimum legal drinking age laws, prohibition of driving with any alcohol level >0 for persons aged <21 years, targeted mass media campaigns, roadside testing (e.g., sobriety checkpoints), and graduated driver licensing programs (10) have contributed to the decline in driving under the influence of alcohol in this population. These or similar interventions might be useful to prevent driving under the influence of other substances, such as marijuana alone or combined with other substances.

History and current status of state graduated driver licensing (GDL) laws in the United States

Introduction: The objective of this study is to describe changes in teenage driver licensing policies in the United States during the past two decades with the introduction of graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs, assess GDL laws currently in place, and discuss the possibilities and likely consequences of further changes.Methods: The history of laws introducing and amending GDL programs was tracked, based on records maintained by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS). Counts of states included the District of Columbia.Results: A few states had elements of GDL prior to the mid-1990s, and between 1996 and 2006 all other states adopted a learner period of 2months or more, a minimum supervised practice hours requirement for the learner period, or a night or passenger restriction once initially licensed. All but seven states have upgraded their original laws one or more times. Very few states weakened their laws, usually in minor ways. In 158 instances, minimum learner periods, minimum practice hour requirements, or night or passenger restrictions were added or strengthened. Fifteen states raised the minimum age for a license allowing any unsupervised driving.Conclusion: GDL policies have reduced teenage driver crashes. Most states now have at least minimum requirements for basic GDL features, although there is substantial opportunity for strengthening existing policies. Additional upgrades would result in further crash reductions, but very few have been made in recent years.Practical applications: Guidelines for maximizing the crash reduction potential of GDL programs are available, based on the experience of U.S. states, other countries with GDL programs, and the evaluation literature in regard to GDL components.

Efficacy, strengths, and limitations of in-vehicle feedback technology to reduce young drivers’ risk: Recent findings from the literature

The main goal of this presentation is to describe the current state of research in regards to in-vehicle feedback technology aimed at young drivers. Young drivers have a higher crash risk worldwide than other age groups, and the first months after licensing are the most dangerous. Several countries have achieved important crash reductions over the past years that are associated with the implementation of graduated driver licensing programs. Provisions of these primary and secondary prevention programs includes older age at licensing and driving privileges provided gradually to young drivers, such as driving at night and with young passengers. Development of in-vehicle technology, such as feedback devices, now allows easier implementation of secondary and tertiary interventions aimed at young drivers. A number of randomized controlled trials have been published and results suggest the efficacy of in-vehicle feedback devices in reducing some indices of risky behavior, such as g-force events. Research has also identified several obstacles to deployment of these devices, including acceptance by both young drivers and their parents. Results of recent studies by our research group on efficacy (N = 160) and acceptance (N = 380) of in-vehicle devices in 18-24 year old drivers, and individual factors that influence these dimensions, will be presented in light of the current research. The main discussion will address the efficacy of in-vehicle feedback technology to reduce young drivers’ risk, its strengths, limitations, and obstacles to implementation in primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention programs.

Longitudinal Analysis of Adolescent Girls' Activity Patterns: Understanding the Influence of the Transition to Licensure.

The proportion of teens and young adults with driver's licenses has declined sharply in many industrialized countries including the United States. Explanations for this decline have ranged from the introduction of graduated driver licensing programs to the increase in online social interaction. We used a longitudinal cohort study of teenage girls in San Diego and Minneapolis to evaluate factors associated with licensure and whether teens' travel patterns become more independent as they aged. We found that licensure depended not only on age, but on race and ethnicity as well as variables that correlate with household income. Results also showed evidence that teen travel became more independent as teen's age, and that acquiring a license is an important part of this increased independence. However, we found limited evidence that teen's travel-activity patterns changed as a result of acquiring a driver's license. Rather, teen independence resulted in less parental chauffeuring, but little shift in travel patterns. For the larger debate on declining Millennial mobility, our results suggest the need for more nuanced attention to variation across demographic groups and consideration of the equity implications if declines in travel and licensure are concentrated in low-income and minority populations.

Tracking progress in teenage driver crash risk in the United States since the advent of graduated driver licensing programs

IntroductionThis study examined U.S. teenagers' crash rates since 1996, when the first graduated driver licensing (GDL) program in the United State was implemented. MethodsPassenger vehicle driver crash involvement rates for 16–19 and 30–59 (middle-aged) year-olds were examined, using data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System, National Automotive Sampling System General Estimates System, Census Bureau, and National Household Travel Surveys. ResultsPer capita fatal and police-reported crash rates in 2012 were lower for 16year-olds than for middle-aged drivers but older teenagers' rates were higher. Mileage-based fatal and police-reported crash rates in 2008 were higher for teenagers than for middle-aged drivers and higher for 16–17year-olds than for older teenagers. In 1996–2012, teenagers' per capita fatal and police-reported crash rates declined sharply, especially for 16–17year-olds, and more so than for middle-aged drivers. Substantial declines also occurred in teenagers' mileage-based fatal and police-reported crash rates from 1995–96 to 2008, generally more so than for middle-aged drivers. Regarding factors in fatal crashes in 1996 and 2012, proportions of young teenagers' crashes occurring at night and with multiple teenage passengers declined, more so than among older teenagers and middle-aged drivers. The proportion of fatally injured drivers who had been drinking declined for teenagers but changed little for middle-aged drivers. Improvements were not apparent in rates of driver errors or speeding among teenage drivers in fatal crashes. ConclusionsTeenage drivers' crash risk dropped during the period of implementation of GDL laws, especially fatal crash types targeted by GDL. However, teenagers' crash risk remains high, and important crash factors remain unaddressed by GDL. Practical applicationsAlthough this study was not designed to examine the role of GDL, the results are consistent with the increased presence of such laws. More gains are achievable if states strengthen their laws.