Grades In German Research Articles

The Sustained Effects of Achievement Goal Profiles on School Achievement across the Transition to Secondary School.

Achievement goals play an important role in activating and sustaining students' ongoing motivation, emotional well-being, and achievement attainment over time. However, little is known empirically about the sustained effects of achievement goal profiles on students' subsequent school achievement, especially for early adolescents during the educational transition. Based on 1764 German students (Mage = 10.47, SD = 0.56; 50.6% female) who participated in a 3-year longitudinal study from Grade 4 to Grade 6, the present research aimed to examine the role of students' achievement goal profiles in the final year of elementary school in predicting their school achievement one year and two years after the transition to secondary school. Results of regression models showed that endorsing a mastery-oriented profile (vs. a high multiple profile or a low mastery profile) at the end of elementary school predicted higher German grades one year and two years after the transition to secondary school even after controlling for their prior achievement and basic cognitive abilities. Moreover, the sustained beneficial effects of a mastery-oriented profile (vs. a low mastery profile) on students' achievement gains can be explained by their higher joy of learning. These results indicate that a mastery-oriented profile in elementary school can be considered an important personal factor that facilitates students' smooth sailing after the transition to secondary school.

Youth at Risk in Higher Levels of Upper Secondary Education: A Supportive Intervention to Prevent School Failure and Drop Out

This study addresses the question of how learners whose parents have a migration background can be supported in upper secondary education to prevent their dropping out of education. To that end, we conducted interventions in an upper secondary education setting in order to improve school grades, subject-specific self-conceptions of ability in mathematics and German, motivation to study, and perceived self-efficacy and we evaluated the effects on learner achievements. We applied a two-phase process: a more virtual approach during restrictions imposed during COVID-19 and a more face-to-face approach in which learners were tutored by teachers. The intervention showed an improvement in grades in German and in the self-conception of ability in mathematics. However, this was only established during the face-to-face intervention phase. During the COVID-19 phase, and thus when there was no possibility of standardized intervention, no specific effects were observed.

Is There Evidence for Intelligence-by-Conscientiousness Interaction in the Prediction of Change in School Grades from Age 11 to 15 Years?

Fluid intelligence and conscientiousness are the most important predictors of school grades. In addition to this main effect, researchers have suggested that the two traits might also interact with each other in the prediction of school success. A synergistic and a compensatory form of interaction have been suggested, but past evidence has been mixed so far. Most previous studies on this subject have been cross-sectional and many of them focused on older adolescents or adults in upper secondary school or university. We thus investigated the main and interaction effects of fluid intelligence and conscientiousness on school grades in math and German in a longitudinal sample of 1043 German students from age 11 to 15 years. Results from latent growth curve models with latent interaction terms showed a small compensatory interaction effect for baseline levels of math grades but not for their development. No interaction effect was found for German grades. These findings are discussed against the background that (synergistic) interaction effects between intelligence and conscientiousness might be more relevant in older students from higher secondary school or university context.

Getting into the university track: Parents’ implicit theories about ability predict which type of secondary school their children are tracked into

The few studies about whether parents’ implicit theories about ability (ITs) predict their children’s academic success and relevant parental behavior have produced mixed results. In response, research suggested that parents’ ITs might be more important in contexts that make children’s intellectual potential salient. Therefore, we investigated the role of parents’ ITs in such a situation: After fourth grade in Bavaria, Germany, students are tracked into one of three secondary school types (one university-track and two non-university-track) depending on their grades (in mathematics, German, and basic science). First, we examined if parents’ ITs predicted whether their children achieved the required grade average for a university-track school (that requires the highest grades). Second, because not all parents whose children achieved this threshold sent them to university-track schools, we investigated among the parents whose children had achieved the university-track threshold grade average whether parents’ ITs predict their track choice. Participants were 578 fourth-graders and their parents. Parents’ educational level was controlled for in all analyses. As expected, children of parents with a more incremental theory were more likely to achieve the university-track threshold grade average. For those children who achieved that threshold, parents with a more incremental theory were more likely to actually send their children to university-track schools. This effect was moderated by grade average. These results suggest that parents’ ITs may indeed be more important in contexts that make children’s intellectual potential salient, such as tracking decisions—especially if children’s achievement raises even slight doubts about whether they will succeed.

The Meaning of School Grades and Self-Concept for General Self-Esteem in Secondary School Students

Abstract: This cross-sectional study with 825 students from fifth to ninth grade ( Mage = 13.01, SD = 1.30) investigated how self-concept domains (physical fitness and verbal) are associated with general self-esteem. Extending the internal/external frame of reference model, school grades in physical education and German (as a subject) were considered as correlates of the verbal and physical fitness self-concept domains. In addition, considering the well-established empirical evidence on gender differences in the different subdomains, measurement and structural invariance were tested across female and male students. Grades, self-concept, and self-esteem were assessed via questionnaires. Structural equation modeling revealed positive relations between grades and the corresponding self-concept subdomains. Physical self-concept had a stronger association with general self-esteem compared with verbal self-concept. Gender stereotypical differences were found only in the mean values of self-concept subdomains and general self-esteem. The results indicate that school grades and the corresponding self-concepts are strongly associated and that physical self-concept might be a salient and meaningful source of general self-esteem in adolescents.

Less learned but still good grades (for some). What impact had school closures on social inequality of educational opportunity?

Several studies have tried to estimate the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on student learning and the learning differences between social groups. Few studies have looked at the effects on other aspects of students’ educational achievement, especially grades. Institutionally, grades are essential for evaluating students’ ability, for tracking, for graduation, and as a signal for the labor market. However, grades are subject to many non-performance-based factors, e.g., students’ characteristics such as gender or social origin. Based on previous research and theoretical arguments, we expected grades during school closures to be less correlated with cognitive competencies and higher correlated with social origin than previous cohorts. We analyzed the effect of the pandemic on students’ grades in mathematics and German at the end of Grade 8. The pandemic can be seen as a natural experiment that can be exploited when analyzing two cohorts of the German National Educational Panel Study. The grades of the younger cohort (n = 4,069 students) who were in Grade 8 during the pandemic (2020) were compared to the grades of the older cohort (n = 6,861 students in 2014). Our results show no systematic increase in educational inequality based on the social origin of students. However, students in the treatment group reported higher grades which might be a result of pro-social grading by teachers.

Migrant teachers in the classroom: a key to reduce ethnic disadvantages in school?

ABSTRACT The educational disadvantages of migrant students are a persistent problem in many Western countries. Against this background, policymakers often call for more diversity in the teacher workforce, arguing that migrant students might benefit from being taught by migrant teachers. Despite the popularity of this claim, there is almost no research-based rationale for increasing the diversity of teachers in Europe. This paper is a step toward filling this research gap for Germany, aiming to assess whether migrant teachers reduce ethnic educational disadvantages. Our analyses are based on a nationally representative large-scale assessment of ninth graders that provides information on the migration status of both students and teachers, with achievement tests and teacher-assigned grades in German as dependent variables. The results run contrary to widely held expectations, indicating little evidence that migrant students benefit from being taught by migrant teachers.

Common genetic and environmental effects on cognitive ability, conscientiousness, self-perceived abilities, and school performance

Personal characteristics (e.g., cognitive ability (CA), conscientiousness, self-perceived abilities (SPA)) predict differences in school performance. While genetic influences on CA and conscientiousness are unequivocal, origins of SPA have long been assumed to be environmental, however substantial genetic contributions have been detected in behavioral genetic analyses. In this study, we investigate the common etiology of these three predictors and their association with school grades in math and German as well as how genetic and environmental contributions differ between age groups and school domains. The sample consists of 2101 twin pairs (aged 11 and 17) and their siblings participating in the German TwinLife study. Using a multivariate twin-sibling design, we analyze common genetic and environmental effects on CA, conscientiousness, SPA and school grades in math and German in two age groups. Results confirm genetic effects for all three predictors (42–51% for CA, 31–42% for conscientiousness, 26–48% for SPA) as well as (non-) shared environmental effects. Multivariate analyses demonstrate that the interrelation between predictors and their association with grades is largely due to common genetic effects. Additional non-shared environmental effects and differences across age groups and school domains are small. We discuss possible underlying mechanisms and implications on individual differences in school performance leading to educational inequality.

Evaluation of an Online Version of the CFT 20-R in Third and Fourth Grade Children.

There is growing demand for digital intelligence testing. In the current study, we evaluated the validity of an online version of the revised German Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFT 20-R). A total of 4100 children from the third and fourth grades completed the online version using a smartphone or tablet. Subsequently, 220 of these children also completed the paper-pencil (PP) version. The internal consistency and construct validity of the online version appeared to be acceptable. The correlation between the raw scores and school grades in German and mathematics was slightly lower than expected. On average, the raw scores for the PP version were revealed to be higher, which was probably due to a learning effect. At the item level, the results show small differences for the subtests Series and Matrices, possibly caused by small differences in the presentation of the items. The correspondence between the versions did not depend on children’s levels of impulsivity or intelligence. Altogether, the results support the hypothesis that the online version of the CFT 20-R is a valid measure of general fluid intelligence and highlight the need for separate norms.

Unraveling the Relationship Between Teacher-Assigned Grades, Student Personality, and Standardized Test Scores.

The Big Five personality traits play a major role in student achievement. As such, there is consistent evidence that students that are more conscientious receive better teacher-assigned grades in secondary school. However, research often does not support the claim that students that are more conscientious similarly achieve higher scores in domain-specific standardized achievement tests. Based on the Invest-and-Accrue Model, we argue that conscientiousness explains to some extent why certain students receive better grades despite similar academic accomplishments (i.e., achieving similar scores in domain-specific standardized achievement tests). Therefore, the present study examines to what extent the relationship between student personality and teacher-assigned grades consists of direct as opposed to indirect associations (via subject-specific standardized test scores). We used a representative sample of 14,710 ninth-grade students to estimate these direct and indirect pathways in mathematics and German. Structural equation models showed that test scores explained between 8 and 11% of the variance in teacher-assigned grades in mathematics and German. The Big Five personality traits in students additionally explained between 8 and 10% of the variance in grades. Finally, the personality-grade relationship consisted of direct (0.02 | β| ≤ 0.27) and indirect associations via test scores (0.01 | β| ≤ 0.07). Conscientiousness explained discrepancies between teacher-assigned grades and students’ scores in domain-specific standardized tests to a greater extent than any of the other Big Five personality traits. Our findings suggest that students that are more conscientious may invest more effort to accomplish classroom goals, but fall short of mastery.

Relative importance of intelligence and ability self-concept in predicting test performance and school grades in the math and language arts domains.

Students’ intelligence and self-concept of ability are critical predictors of school achievement. However, studies focusing on the relative importance of both achievement predictors have produced mixed results. To clarify these inconsistencies, the present study investigated whether the relative predictive power of students’ intelligence and ability self-concept differs depending on the achievement indicator at hand (standardized test performance vs. school grades) and the achievement domain (math vs. language arts). Data from 1,067 German 8th graders were analyzed using multilevel structural equation modeling. Our results showed that students’ intelligence was the best unique predictor of standardized test performance in math, but its predictive power for students’ test performance in German was comparable with the predictive effects of students’ ability self-concept in this domain. Students’ domain-specific ability self-concept emerged as the best predictor of students’ grades in both math and German. Commonality analyses revealed greater overlap between students’ intelligence and self-concept in math than in the verbal domain. Finally, analyses of compositional effects indicated that having classmates with comparatively high intelligence positively predicted students’ standardized test performance in both math and German, controlling for individual intelligence, but did not significantly predict students’ grades. Students’ gender, socioeconomic status (SES), immigration background, and academic track level were included as covariates in these analyses. The present study underscores the importance of considering different achievement indicators in analyses of the cognitive and motivational underpinnings of student achievement across academic domains. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)

The Importance of Students' Motivation for Their Academic Achievement - Replicating and Extending Previous Findings.

Achievement motivation is not a single construct but rather subsumes a variety of different constructs like ability self-concepts, task values, goals, and achievement motives. The few existing studies that investigated diverse motivational constructs as predictors of school students’ academic achievement above and beyond students’ cognitive abilities and prior achievement showed that most motivational constructs predicted academic achievement beyond intelligence and that students’ ability self-concepts and task values are more powerful in predicting their achievement than goals and achievement motives. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the reported previous findings can be replicated when ability self-concepts, task values, goals, and achievement motives are all assessed at the same level of specificity as the achievement criteria (e.g., hope for success in math and math grades). The sample comprised 345 11th and 12th grade students (M = 17.48 years old, SD = 1.06) from the highest academic track (Gymnasium) in Germany. Students self-reported their ability self-concepts, task values, goal orientations, and achievement motives in math, German, and school in general. Additionally, we assessed their intelligence and their current and prior Grade point average and grades in math and German. Relative weight analyses revealed that domain-specific ability self-concept, motives, task values and learning goals but not performance goals explained a significant amount of variance in grades above all other predictors of which ability self-concept was the strongest predictor. Results are discussed with respect to their implications for investigating motivational constructs with different theoretical foundation.

Ability self-concept formation in elementary school: No dimensional comparison effects across time.

In line with the reciprocal internal/external frame of reference model (RI/E model), it is well-established that secondary school students generate domain-specific ability self-concepts by comparing their own performance in a domain socially (i.e., with others' performance in this domain) and dimensionally (i.e., with their own performance in other domains). However, developmental theories of ability conceptions suggest that the use of such performance comparisons to evaluate own abilities may differ by students' developmental stage because of important developmental changes between early and late childhood. Yet, to our knowledge, no study has investigated dimensional comparison effects in elementary school longitudinally although this can provide valuable information on the formation of ability self-concepts. Thus, we tested whether longitudinal dimensional effects on changes in students' ability self-concepts occur in the early school years. Ability self-concepts and grades in math and German of 542 German elementary school students were assessed seven times over 24 months from Grade 2 (M = 7.95 years of age, SD = 0.58) to Grade 4. Cross-sectional analyses showed some evidence for dimensional effects of students' math grades on their German self-concepts, but not of students' German grades on their math self-concepts. Longitudinal analyses with latent cross-lagged models revealed no evidence for longitudinal dimensional effects on changes in children's ability self-concepts. Findings indicate that dimensional comparisons are not as important in ability self-concept formation in the first school years as they tend to be later on. Findings underline the importance of considering developmental differences to better understand ability self-concept formation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The longitudinal association between personality and achievement in adolescence: Differential effects across all Big Five traits and four achievement indicators

In this study, we investigated the longitudinal interplay between personality and achievement and the effect of family cohesion on relative change in personality and achievement in adolescence. Using longitudinal data from the National Educational Panel Study (NEPS; N = 4355, AgeT1 = 12.9 years, 49% female adolescents), we estimated latent cross-lagged panel models that included personality traits, different achievement indicators, and family cohesion. There were three main findings. First, we replicated previous cross-sectional personality-achievement associations. Second, after accounting for covariates and stability effects, all personality traits (except agreeableness) were related to change in at least one achievement indicator. Third, student-rated family cohesion was associated with better grades (in German) 2 years later but showed no effects on personality change. The findings demonstrate that, when explored longitudinally, personality shows only small effects on achievement change and vice versa in adolescence. We emphasize the need for further research to disentangle the specific processes behind these associations.

Assessing the instructional quality of private tutoring and its effects on student outcomes: Analyses from the German National Educational PanelStudy.

BackgroundA considerable proportion of secondary school students gets additional support from private tutoring lessons. Empirical findings on the effectiveness of private tutoring are inconclusive. The instructional quality of the tutoring lessons might influence their effectiveness.AimsWe analysed (1) whether students privately tutored in the subjects German or mathematics outperformed their non‐tutored counterparts; (2) whether the instructional quality of the tutoring lessons can be described with the three dimensions, structure, challenge, and support; and (3) the effects of these quality dimensions on the students’ academic achievement and their global satisfaction with their school and family situation.SampleWe used data from the German National Educational Panel Study (NEPS). From a total sample of N = 11,358 10th‐grade secondary school students, subsamples provided information about tutoring quality in mathematics (nM = 1,714), German (nG = 148), and English (nE = 490).MethodsThe model of three correlated dimensions of tutoring quality was evaluated with confirmatory factor analyses, and the effects on student outcomes were tested in a structural equation modelling framework.ResultsAnalyses revealed neither global effects of private tutoring nor effects of its instructional quality on students’ grades in mathematics or German. However, the support dimension was positively related to students’ satisfaction with their school situation.ConclusionsPrivate tutoring cannot be recommended as a generally effective strategy to improve academic achievement in school, but might be helpful to relieve the stress level induced by insufficient achievement in school.

Reliability and Validity of PIRLS and TIMSS

Abstract. Academic achievements are often assessed in written exams and tests using selection-type (e.g., multiple-choice, MC) and supply-type (e.g., constructed-response, CR) item response formats. The present article examines how MC items and CR items differ with regard to reliability and criterion validity in two educational large-scale assessments with 4th-graders. The reading items of PIRLS 2006 were compiled into MC scales, CR scales, and mixed scales. Scale reliabilities were estimated according to item response theory (international PIRLS sample; n = 119,413). MC showed smaller standard errors than CR around the reading proficiency mean, whereas CR was more reliable for low and high proficiency levels. In the German sample (n = 7,581), there was no format-specific differential validity (criterion: German grades, r ≈ .5; Δr = 0.01). The mathematics items of TIMSS 2007 (n = 160,922) showed similar reliability patterns. MC validity was slightly larger than CR validity (criterion: mathematics grades; n = 5,111; r ≈ .5, Δr = −0.02). Effects of format-specific test extensions were very small in both studies. It seems that in PIRLS and TIMSS, reliability and validity do not depend substantially on response formats. Consequently, other response format characteristics (like the cost of development, administration, and scoring) should be considered when choosing between MC and CR.

Smart, confident, interested: Contributions of intelligence, self-concept, and interest to elementary school achievement

Cognitive and motivational variables are significant correlates and predictors of scholastic achievement. In upper elementary school grade levels, intelligence seems to be more important compared to motivational variables. Regarding motivational variables, (competence) self-concept revealed higher path coefficients in reported grades than interest. Extending these findings to lower grade levels, the present study with N=858 students that stemmed from grade levels 2, 3, and 4 (n=253/321/284) revealed that, when all three predictors were jointly considered, self-concept and interest contributed substantially to the prediction of reported grades in mathematics and German beyond intelligence in all three examined grade levels, with the exception of interest of fourth graders in German. Self-concept was the numerically stronger motivational predictor. Significant grade level-related differences of the predictors were not evidenced. The importance of cognitive and motivational predictors for scholastic success in elementary school is discussed.

Linking Teacher and Parent Ratings of Teacher-Nominated Gifted Elementary School Students to Each Other and to School Grades

This study investigated teacher and parent ratings of teacher-nominated gifted elementary school students’ verbal abilities, mathematical abilities, deductive reasoning, creative thinking, and engagement, and connected these ratings to school grades. Teacher and parent ratings were compared with regard to accuracy levels and halo effects. Furthermore, this study explored the correlations between teacher and parent ratings and how they are related to school grades. The study was based on data from 572 elementary school students participating in an enrichment program. The results indicated the same accuracy levels for teachers and parents. However, teacher ratings were more strongly affected by halo effects than parent ratings. The correlations between teacher and parent ratings were small to medium. Both raters’ ratings were independently and positively associated with German grades when controlling for each other. Positive teacher or parent ratings of mathematical abilities and engagement buffered the relation between the other rater’s ratings and math grades.

Effects of Sport-Specific Training during the Early Stages of Long-Term Athlete Development on Physical Fitness, Body Composition, Cognitive, and Academic Performances.

Introduction: Several sports demand an early start into long-term athlete development (LTAD) because peak performances are achieved at a relatively young age (e.g., gymnastics). However, the challenging combination of high training volumes and academic demands may impede youth athletes' cognitive and academic performances. Thus, the aims of this study were to examine the effects of a 1-year sport-specific training and/or physical education on physical fitness, body composition, cognitive and academic performances in youth athletes and their non-athletic peers.Methods: Overall, 45 prepubertal fourth graders from a German elite sport school were enrolled in this study. Participating children were either youth athletes from an elite sports class (n = 20, age 9.5 ± 0.5 years) or age-matched peers from a regular class (n = 25, age 9.6 ± 0.6 years). Over the 1-year intervention period, the elite sports class conducted physical education and sport-specific training (i.e., gymnastics, swimming, soccer, bicycle motocross [BMX]) during school time while the regular class attended physical education only. Of note, BMX is a specialized form of cycling that is performed on motocross tracks and affords high technical skills. Before and after intervention, tests were performed for the assessment of physical fitness (speed [20-m sprint], agility [star agility run], muscle power [standing long jump], flexibility [stand-and-reach], endurance [6-min-run], balance [single-leg stance]), body composition (e.g., muscle mass), cognitive (d2-test) and academic performance (reading [ELFE 1–6], writing [HSP 4–5], calculating [DEMAT 4]). In addition, grades in German, English, Mathematics, and physical education were documented.Results: At baseline, youth athletes showed better physical fitness performances (p < 0.05; d = 0.70–2.16), less relative body fat mass, more relative skeletal muscle mass (p < 0.01; d = 1.62–1.84), and similar cognitive and academic achievements compared to their non-athletic peers. Athletes' training volume amounted to 620 min/week over the 1-year period while their peers performed 155 min/week. After the intervention, significant differences were found in 6 out of 7 physical fitness tests (p < 0.05; d = 0.75–1.40) and in the physical education grades (p < 0.01; d = 2.36) in favor of the elite sports class. No significant between-group differences were found after the intervention in measures of body composition (p > 0.05; d = 0.66–0.67), cognition and academics (p > 0.05; d = 0.40–0.64). Our findings revealed no significant between-group differences in growth rate (deltas of pre-post-changes in body height and leg length).Discussion: Our results revealed that a school-based 1-year sport-specific training in combination with physical education improved physical fitness but did not negatively affect cognitive and academic performances of youth athletes compared to their non-athletic peers. It is concluded that sport-specific training in combination with physical education promotes youth athletes' physical fitness development during LTAD and does not impede their cognitive and academic development.

Explaining academic-track boys' underachievement in language grades: Not a lack of aptitude but students' motivational beliefs and parents' perceptions?

Boys earn lower grades in languages than girls. The expectancy-value model by Eccles etal. (, A series of books in psychology. Achievement and achievement motives. Psychological and sociological approaches, W.H. Freeman, San Francisco, CA, 76) is a comprehensive theoretical model for explaining gender differences in educational outcomes. In the past, most studies have focused on girls' disadvantage in math and science and on the role of the students' motivational beliefs. We aimed to explain boys' lower language grades by applying the expectancy-value model while taking into account students' motivational beliefs as well as their aptitude, prior achievement, and socializers' beliefs. In addition, we aimed at exploring the incremental contribution of each potential mediator. Five hundred and twenty German students (age M=17years; 58% female) and 374 parents (age M=47years). Student-reported ability self-concept (ASC) and task values, parents' perceptions of students' ability, students' prior achievement as reported by schools, and students' verbal intelligence test scores were all tested as mediators of the effect of gender on grades in German while controlling for parents' socioeconomic status. Single-mediator models and a multiple-mediator model were estimated using structural equationmodelling. All variables proved to be relevant for explaining boys' underachievement in language grades. Whereas students' ASC, task values, prior achievement, and parents' perceptions mediated the gender effect, verbal intelligence was identified as a suppressor variable increasing the gender effect. Our results challenge the stereotypic belief that boys' lower grades are due to lower verbal aptitude. Rather, students' motivational beliefs and parents' perceptions seem critical factors. Implications for both future research and practice are discussed.