Governance Of Small-scale Fisheries Research Articles

From vulnerability to viability: A situational analysis of small-scale fisheries in Asia and Africa

Small-scale fisheries (SSF) support over 90% of the 120 million people engaged in capture fisheries globally. Despite their contributions, SSF communities are often economically and politically marginalised, are highly vulnerable to change, and until recently, remained largely invisible in policy debates in most countries and internationally. This paper undertakes a situational analysis of 12 countries with significant small-scale fisheries (i.e., Bangladesh, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malawi, Malaysia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, and Thailand) to better understand the context in which they might transition from vulnerability to viability. Several insights emerge from this analysis. First, we identify the social and ecological drivers of change that exacerbate vulnerability and undermine SSF viability by focusing on five key domains: economic/development, ecological and environmental, social and cultural, governance and management, and emerging issues. Second, we highlight several cross-cutting issues and challenges facing SSF, including increasing attention to gender and the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. Finally, the situational analysis highlights several key policy and governance dimensions that are being explored in countries as potential enablers of more viable SSF. These include community-centered approaches and gender inclusion initiatives. Such governance interventions can also catalyze unintended vulnerabilities as vulnerability and viability are linked and dynamic processes. This situational analysis was co-developed as part of a global network of SSF researchers and practitioners across Africa and Asia. Outcomes of the situational analysis can be used to catalyze additional country and regional scale assessments and leverage opportunities for governance of small-scale fisheries.

Alternatives to sustainable seafood certifications: Transitions of small-scale fisheries governance in northeastern Japan

Landscape pressures in fisheries governance systems ranging from the impacts of climate change to the detrimental impacts of overfishing are beginning to pressure regime actors to act. One way regime actors have responded to fisheries issues is through the promotion of sustainable seafood certification. In this paper, we utilize the Pathway for Transitions (Geels and Schot, 2007) as a theoretical lens to examine how the sustainable seafood certification innovation represents a transformation pathway through regime actors' power. In addition, we bring light to alternative niche groups which base their governance strategies on local ecological knowledge and work to be inclusive of small-scale fishers. In many traditional fishing communities in Japan, local knowledge structures regarding social-ecological systems are crucial for sustainable governance. While some studies have been done on sustainable seafood certification, how they impact local knowledge structures has yet to be fully examined. We found, despite local knowledge structures theoretically acknowledged, powerful political-economic actors do not draw from them, but instead push for sustainable seafood certification as a way to cope with external shocks. Our research illuminates three groups which highlight important aspects of sustainable governance at the niche level, demonstrating the need to incorporate power dynamics as a factor in sustainability transitions. They include; 1) a NGO actively governing through local knowledge, 2) inclusive governance activities, and, 3) a platform for small-scale fishers’ agency. If regime-level innovations, such as sustainable seafood certification, continue to determine how sustainability should be practiced, local knowledge structures will be lost to standardization. We contend that by acknowledging and utilizing local knowledge from local actors, it could contribute to a more just form of governance through equitable participation of small-scale fishers and their local ecological knowledge validated.

Strong collective action enables valuable and sustainable fisheries for cooperatives

Seafood is one of the most internationally-traded food commodities. International markets can provide higher revenues that benefit small-scale fishing communities but can also drive a decline in fished populations. Collective action in collective organizations such as fishing cooperatives is thought to enhance the sustainability of fished populations. However, our knowledge of how collective action enables fishing cooperatives to achieve positive social-ecological outcomes is dispersed across case studies. Here, we present a quantitative, national-level analysis exploring the relationship between different levels of collective action and social-ecological outcomes. We found that strong collective action in Mexican lobster cooperatives was related to both sustaining their fisheries and benefiting from international trade. In the 15 year study period, lobster cooperatives that demonstrate characteristics associated with strong collective action captured benefits from trade through high catch volumes and revenue. Despite lower (but stable) average prices, the biomass of their lobster populations was not compromised to reap these benefits. Individual case studies previously found that fishing cooperatives can support both positive social and ecological outcomes in small-scale fisheries. Our results confirm these findings at a national level and highlight the importance of strong collective action. Thus, our work contributes to a better understanding of the governance arrangements to promote fishing communities’ welfare and benefits from international trade and, therefore, will be invaluable to advancing small-scale fisheries governance.

Women’s experiences in influencing and shaping small‐scale fisheries governance

AbstractThis paper synthesizes current empirical evidence on how women experience, shape and influence small‐scale fisheries (SSF) governance. Our synthesis addresses an important gap in the literature, and helps highlight the opportunities to improve women's participation in governance and advance gender equality. We identified, characterized and synthesized 54 empirical cases at the intersection of gender and SSF governance, which comprise the relevant body of literature. Our review confirms the need to embed gender in the empirical examination of SSF governance towards expanding the current evidence base on this topic. We found that the institutional contexts within which women participate reflect a broad spectrum of arrangements, including the interactions with rules and regulations; participatory arrangements such as co‐management; and informal norms, customary practices and relational spaces. We also synthesized a typology of governance tasks performed by women in SSF. The typology includes leadership roles and active participation in decision‐making; relational networking and collective action; exercising agency and legitimacy; resource monitoring; knowledge sharing; meeting attendance (with no/less participation in decision‐making); and activism and mass mobilization. Furthermore, we drew broader insights based on the patterns that emerged across the literature and highlighted implications for improving women's meaningful participation in SSF governance. For example, exploring the breadth of governance arrangements to include all governance spaces where women are active, adjusting governance arrangements to respond to current and emerging barriers, and recognizing how women's efforts link with societal values may help legitimize their representation in SSF governance. Findings of this review should be of interest to the scholarly community, practitioners and policymakers alike and inform future research agendas, policy dialogues and practice intervention.

Linking small-scale fisheries performance to governance attributes: A quantitative assessment from stakeholders' perceptions in the Americas and Europe

Small-scale fisheries (SSFs) provide food security, livelihood, and employment to millions of people around the world. Whereas the urgency of securing sustainable SSFs is widely recognized, the governance characteristics that promote sustainability are poorly understood. This study evaluates the performance and governance of SSFs in 20 countries in the Americas and Europe, with the aim of finding the most likely paths to improve SSFs outcomes. Fisheries performance was assessed through ecological and socio-economic indicators derived from stakeholders’ perceptions. The relative importance of 15 governance attributes associated with the perceived performance was identified using random forest regression models. The perceived status of many SSFs analyzed here is of great concern. Trends in reported landings, landings per unit effort, and revenues have decreased between 3% and 10% on average in the last 5 years, and these declines were steeper in Latin American and southern European fisheries than in North American or northern European fisheries. Perceived social cohesion was also poor, as reflected by conflicts outweighing cooperation. Adaptability, communication, transparency, and the involvement of highly skilled fishers and community leaders were the most relevant factors associated with reversing the perceived declines in SSFs. Strengthening human capital should be a priority in the reform of SSFs, and the following actions are strongly recommended to support sustainable SSFs: 1) adopting flexible approaches in responding to changes; 2) fostering dialog by using diverse communication channels or involving neutral mediators; 3) identifying and training community leaders; and 4) empowering fishers to participate actively in governance.

Gender and Blue Justice in small-scale fisheries governance

This paper examines the need to embed gender in an empirical examination or conceptual use of Blue Justice. In developing the Blue Justice concept, there is a need to avoid reproducing ongoing and historical omissions of gender issues in small-scale fisheries governance and research. By drawing on the concepts of procedural and distributive justice, this paper explores how gender equity and equality and Blue Justice concerns interrelate, inform and shape each other in fisheries governance. These issues are explored through an analysis of four cases: Zanzibar (Tanzania), Chile, France and the United Kingdom (UK). We find that gendered power inequities in fisheries and women’s marginalised participation in fisheries governance are associated with procedural injustices. These further shape the distributive outcomes in fisheries governance. We argue that any effort to integrate gender into Blue Justice has to address the way that power relations are gendered in a particular fishery – extending the focus beyond the sea and including issues and concerns that are not always included in traditional fisheries governance arrangements revolving around fish resource management.

Can stable isotopes be applied to determine shrimp stocks origin in SE Brazil? An approach for utilization in fishery management

Stable isotopes of carbon (13C) and nitrogen (15N) are chemical markers used to trace the geographic origin of species targeted by commercial fisheries, helping in fishery management strategies. Considering the extension of Brazilian coastline, approaches for shrimp stock discrimination may assist local fisheries. This study characterizes the isotopic composition in natural stocks of the penaeid shrimps Xiphopenaeus kroyeri, Artemesia longinaris e Litopenaeus schmitti, targets of small-scale coastal fisheries in SE Brazil. Shrimps were obtained from six fishing ports located on Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo coastline (from 18°S to 23°S). δ13C-δ15N distinguished stocks from fishing ports and δ13C had higher variability when compared to δ15N, explaining most of the differences between stocks for all species. This study presents a participatory planning for local fishery management with stakeholders (fishers, public managers and researchers) working together. The planning aims to minimize possible conflicts between near fishing communities through the identification of fishery boundaries, maintaining the fishing territories, and to promote the fishery production from a particular community, valuing the local economy. The proposed actions can establish an identity to local fisheries and improve small-scale fisheries governance in SE Brazil.

Challenges for the Governance of Small-Scale Fisheries on the Brazil-Bolivia Transboundary Region

Developing institutional arrangements for supporting sustainable fisheries has been a critical challenge for the governance of common-pool resources, especially in transboundary regions. In this paper, we analyze the impact of governance arrangements on a small-scale fishery system on the Brazil-Bolivia border in the Amazon region. Data collection involved documental analysis, literature review and conduction of semi-structured interviews with fishers and environmental protection/regulatory agencies’ staff. We present an exploratory qualitative analysis of the interactions between the fishery system’s attributes (biological, environmental, technical and governance), examining institutional arrangements among diverse stakeholders. Results reveal that the small-scale fishery characteristics and the relationships between resources and stakeholders has contributed to stock maintenance and overall sustainability of the fishery system. Nevertheless, we also found that the governance structure is fragile due to weak institutional arrangements within and between countries, resulting in increased vulnerability of the fishery system to imminent threats.

Navigating Complexities: Agent-Based Modeling to Support Research, Governance, and Management in Small-Scale Fisheries

The sustainable governance and management of small-scale fisheries (SSF) is challenging, largely due to their dynamic and complex nature. Agent-based modeling (ABM) is a computational modeling approach that can account for the dynamism and complexity in SSF by modeling entities as individual agents with different characteristics and behavior, and simulate how their interactions can give rise to emergent phenomena, such as over-fishing and social inequalities. The structurally realistic design of agent-based models allow stakeholder, experts and scientists across disciplines and sectors to reconcile different knowledge bases, assumptions, and goals. ABMs can also be designed using any combination of theory, quantitative data, or qualitative data. In this publication we elaborate on the untapped potential of ABM to tackle governance and management challenges in SSF, discuss the limitations of ABM, and review its application in published SSF models. Our review shows that, although few models exist to date, ABM has been used for diverse purposes, including as a research tool for understanding cooperation and over-harvesting, and as a decision-support tool, or participatory tool, in case-specific fisheries. Even though the development of ABMs is often time- and resource intensive, it is the only dynamic modeling approach that can represent entities of different types, their heterogeneity, actions and interactions, thus doing justice to the complex and dynamic nature of SSF which, if ignored can lead to unintended policy outcomes and less sustainable SSF.

Reconciling human rights and customary law: legal pluralism in the governance of small-scale fisheries*

The Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries (SSF Guidelines) introduce a human rights framework for fisheries management and development, suggesting an inclusive approach that embraces a range of rights, regimes and interests. These reflect diverse systems of law, values and norms, straddling both customary and statutory systems of governance and tenure. The interface between these different systems poses questions about the extent to which they are reconcilable with a human rights-based approach. The latter originates in the domain of transnational law, which has been increasing in scope and importance in recent decades. How transnational law interacts with and affects various law systems is an empirical question, to which much scholarly attention has gone. The normative question that emerges, however, is how to balance the recognition of universal human rights with respect for historically-evolved and locally legitimate, customary law in case of conflicts between them. This paper investigates some of the tensions and opportunities that arise in the meeting of the SSF Guidelines and customary socio-legal systems, paying special attention to four important fields of overlap and possibly contention: tenure, gender, child labour and markets. Co-management platforms are suggested to be the ideal meeting ground for negotiating acceptable hybrids and designing so-called interlegalities.

Evaluating the Fit of Co-management for Small-Scale Fisheries Governance in Timor-Leste

Fisheries co-management is an increasingly globalised concept, and a cornerstone of the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication. Timor-Leste is a politically young country in the relatively rare position of having underexploited fisheries that can be leveraged to improve coastal livelihood outcomes and food security. The collaborative and decentralised characteristics of co-management appeal to policymakers in Timor-Leste with provisions for co-management and customary laws applied to resource use incorporated into state law in 2004, and again in 2012. The first fisheries co-management pilots have commenced where management arrangements have been codified through tara bandu, a process of setting local laws built around ritual practice that prohibits nominated activities under threat of spiritual and material sanctions. To date, however there has been little critical evaluation of the suitability of co-management or tara bandu in the Timor-Leste fisheries context. To address this gap, we adapt the interactive governance framework to review the ecological, social and governance characteristics of Timor-Leste’s fisheries to explore whether co-management offers a valid and viable resource governance model. We present two co-management case studies and examine how they were established, who was involved, the local institutional structures, and the fisheries governance challenges they sought to address. Despite their relative proximity, the two sites contrasted in local ecology and fishery type; community institutions were starkly different but equally strong; and one site had tangible economic benefits to justify compliance, where the other had marginal and anecdotal fishery gains. In our review of the broader governance landscape in Timor-Leste, we see co-management as a useful mechanism to govern small-scale fisheries, but there is a need to connect legitimised local institutions with hierarchical governance of higher and external influences. Initial successes with implementing tara bandu incorporating a small marine closure have stimulated other communities to implement no-take zones - one universally popular but very limited interpretation of co-management. However, we highlight the need for a set of guiding principles to ensure legitimate community engagement, and avoid external appropriation that may reinforce marginalization of certain user groups or customary power hierarchies.

Too big to fail: An essay about Svein Jentoft’s engagement in small-scale fisheries research and development of the interactive governance theory

The Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries (SSF Guidelines) adopted in 2014 marked a special moment for small-scale fisheries worldwide. It is the first global instrument that is designed “by” and “for” small-scale fisheries. The emphasis on food security and poverty alleviation may be interpreted to mean that the SSF Guidelines aim only at developing countries. However, as argued by Prof. Svein Jentoft, who has been instrumental in the drafting of the Guidelines’ text as well as in the official adoption process, the SSF Guidelines are relevant for small-scale fisheries in the north in the same way that small-scale fisheries are important to many developed countries. A fundamental question is how to make use of the SSF Guidelines in enabling the sustainability of small-scale fisheries. This essay presents some of the arguments made by Prof. Jentoft’s work on small-scale fisheries and fisheries governance, that the implementation of the SSF Guidelines requires changes in all governing orders. Specifically, multiple case studies research is necessary at the first order to illuminate the diversity and complexity of small-scale fisheries and the multifaceted issues and challenges they face. This is imperative for the new design and re-arrangement of institutions in the second-order to allow for flexibility and adaptation to deal with the dynamics in small-scale fisheries and the changing environment. Finally, at the meta-order, new images for small-scale fisheries governance are required. The essay concludes with some discussion about moving forward, reflecting on the influence of Prof. Jentoft’s work in shaping research and governance for small-scale fisheries sustainability.

Weaving governance narratives: discourses of climate change, cooperatives, and small-scale fisheries in Mexico

In the coming decades, accelerating processes of climate change are expected to impact the world’s fisheries. These changes will likely exacerbate ongoing challenges in the governance of small-scale fisheries, which play a significant role in supporting livelihoods and food security throughout the world. Among fishers in Mexico, the perceived impacts of climate change on coastal fisheries are increasingly salient. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the realities of climate change and other socio-environmental phenomena are discursively co-produced by fishers and government actors in a distinct type of political arena: the general assemblies of federated fishing cooperatives. Fishing cooperatives in Mexico organize into regional-level federations, which in turn form national-level confederations. Confederations are therefore multi-level, nested organizations for collective action and political representation. Here, we examine the interactions between fishers and federal government officials in the 2016 general assembly of one confederation, which represents 25 federations with 338 cooperatives. The general assembly of the confederation serves as a political space for open democratic participation among members and, in this case, discussions between fishers and government representatives. The discourses employed by fishers and government actors reveal tensions about the role of the state, the purpose of scientific knowledge in resource management, and the nature of the cooperative small-scale fishing sector. Insights from this case are used to advance discussions about the value of examining discursive practices to gain insights about fisheries policy, through a critical discussion of the Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework. We theorize discursive practices as part of politicized performances that coalitions of actors use to express policy preferences and weave together governance narratives, which are useful for understanding positions and broader debates at the national level.

Transforming the governance of small-scale fisheries

Despite their contribution to employment, food security, poverty eradication, and community well-being, small-scale fisheries often find themselves in a disadvantageous position globally relative to large-scale fisheries and other industries competing for marine space, resources, and government attention. By and large, small-scale fisheries are marginalized in every sense of the word: culturally, socially, economically, geographically, legally, and politically. Their unfavorable status is frequently perceived to be both a cause and effect of overfishing, unsustainable fishing practices, and governance failure; thus, their potential to modernize while participating in and delivering on sustainable development goals is less than optimal. Given that the majority of the world’s fisheries are small-scale, it is imperative that major changes take place in the conditions that determine the predicament of small-scale fisheries. For these reasons, in 2014, FAO member states endorsed the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication (SSF Guidelines), with the aim of encouraging states and civil society organizations to take steps to bring about the changes needed to improve the sustainability and viability of small-scale fisheries. The SSF Guidelines call for broad and complex governance interventions; however, as much as they can help create transformation within small-scale fisheries, governance systems themselves must also be transformed before real change can take place. Based on the analysis of 34 case studies of small-scale fisheries’ governance around the world, our synthesis reveals that small-scale fisheries’ governance is indeed undergoing different types of transformation and can take place in all governing modes. Further, these transformations occur at the operational, institutional, and the meta-levels of governance, which, from the perspective of the SSF Guidelines, is encouraging.

Strengthening participatory approaches to coastal fisheries governance in Papua New Guinea: the role of local-level government legislation

Fisheries governance in Papua New Guinea is a significant factor to the nation’s sustainable development. In seeking to strengthen community-based and participatory approaches to fisheries management in the nation, this paper will highlight the significant role of local-level governments in re-envisioning coastal and small-scale fisheries governance and argues that such local-level legislative authorities provide an opportunity to progress the nation’s coastal fisheries governance.

Challenges and Opportunities in Implementing the Ecosystem Approach to Small-scale Fisheries Management (EAFM) in Misamis Occidental, Philippines

This paper presents the challenges and opportunities of small-scale fisheries management in Misamis Occidental, especially in the coastal municipalities of Aloran, Jimenez, Lopez Jaena, Panaon, Plaridel, Sinacaban, Tudela, and Oroquieta City. A site diagnosis was conducted as part of the participatory diagnosis and adaptive management framework to characterize the governance of small-scale fisheries in the area and to determine the potential for adopting the ecosystem approach to fisheries. Stakeholders identified, in order of priority, the following issues affecting fisheries and coastal resource management in Iligan Bay: depleted fishery resources, lack of alternative livelihood, and limited institutional capabilities. In a united response, the local government units in the area formed the Iligan Bay Alliance of Misamis Occidental, through which they explore opportunities to address issues and to restore and sustain the fisheries in Iligan Bay.

The micro-politics of small-scale fisheries governance in South Africa: a case study of community-based political representation as a form of brokerage

The right of small-scale fishers to participate in governance and management processes has been increasingly recognised by theorists and policy-makers over the last thirty years. Political representation is central to the realisation of the right to participation. In the context of small-scale fisheries, the first level of political representation is usually located within a spatially or socially defined ‘community’, where both fisher constituents and representatives are members of that community. This ‘community-based’ form of political representation requires representatives to speak and act on behalf of their fisher constituency, mediating the relationship between their constituency and external actors such as government officials, fisheries scientists, and fish buyers. The role of mediation or ‘brokerage’ places community-based representatives in a position of strategic advantage–a position that some representatives exploit to gain and exercise their own power, instead of protecting and asserting the interests of their constituency. Community-based political representation commonly manifests as brokerage, yet this phenomenon receives limited attention in predominant approaches to fisheries governance theory. Drawing on ethnographic research conducted in a South African coastal town, this paper seeks to demonstrate, at a micro-political scale, some of the ways that community-based representation can be manipulated as an instrument for brokerage by local elites, rather than serving as an instrument for empowering the livelihoods and democratic participation of small-scale fishers. The paper concludes by highlighting some of the implications that community-based representation has for fishing communities, as well as for the practice of fisheries governance and management. Finally, the paper argues for the necessity of a critical perspective when theorising fisheries governance processes, so as to confront and interrogate the strategic practices and asymmetrical power relations by which those governance processe are decisively shaped.

The importance of understanding self-governance efforts in coastal fisheries in Peru: insights from La Islilla and Ilo

Understanding self-governance efforts in small-scale coastal fisheries may hold the clue to establishing effective coastal fisheries policies or strengthening existing ones. Here, we explored the diversity and the rationale behind the self-devised control rules implemented by two groups of coastal fishers in Peru, and the pathways to promote compliance under self-governance systems, as a prerequisite to sustain such efforts. We drew on an exploratory methodological approach and used semi-structured interviews and a questionnaire, designed following Ostrom's socio-ecological system (SES) framework, to characterize each experience. A compliance framework was used to identify the pathways and factors driving compliance. Results showed a variety of informal control rules have been set and used by fishers, from catch limits to patrolling activities. Each addresses specific fisheries governance and management issues. Results also showed that setting control rules has not been a one-time event; instead, it is an evolving learning process. Furthermore, both traditional (La Islilla) and non-traditional (Ilo) SES frameworks have built their own ways to promote compliance and sustain self-governance efforts. These two experiences provide insights for understanding self-governance of coastal fisheries, with particular attention to identifying ways to improve the governability of small-scale fisheries through cogovernance type arrangements.

Rehabilitating mussel beds in Coffee Bay, South Africa: Towards fostering cooperative small-scale fisheries governance and enabling community upliftment.

Along the coast of South Africa, marine resources play a significant role in supporting livelihoods and contributing to food security in impoverished rural communities. Post-apartheid fisheries laws and policies have begun to address traditional fishing rights and development needs, and new management arrangements are being implemented. One such initiative has been the Mussel Rehabilitation Project in Coffee Bay, which piloted a resource rehabilitation technique at several over-exploited fishing sites. Mussel stocks in these exploited areas had dropped to under 1% mussel cover, and during the project period, stocks increased to>80% cover, supporting a sustainable harvest well above national daily bag limits. This stock enhancement was achieved only after the project had started to address social challenges such as the lack of local management institutions and the need to enhance food security. The project embarked on training and institution-building; it formed a robust community mussel management committee; and developed a local resource management plan, facilitating increased community participation in the day-to-day management of the resource. The project also saw the initiation of various ancillary projects aimed at improving food security and stimulating the local economy and hence alleviating pressure on the marine resources. Here we review this 10-year project's outcomes, and present lessons for small-scale fisheries governance in South Africa and internationally. We show, through empirical experience, that balancing stock rebuilding needs in a context of widespread poverty and dependency on natural resources by a local fisher community can only be addressed through an integrated approach to development. Participation of resource users and a thorough understanding of the local context are imperative to negotiating appropriate small-scale fisheries governance approaches. We recommend that the implementation of South Africa's newly minted Small-Scale Fisheries Policy should begin with bottom-up, demonstrative resource management measures such as mussel rehabilitation. This type of initiative can deliver short-term food security benefits and foster social learning towards sustainable and cooperative fisheries governance.

Crossing Science-Policy-Societal Boundaries to Reduce Scientific and Institutional Uncertainty in Small-Scale Fisheries.

The governance of small-scale fisheries (SSF) is challenging due to the uncertainty, complexity, and interconnectedness of social, political, ecological, and economical processes. Conventional SSF management has focused on a centralized and top-down approach. A major criticism of conventional management is the over-reliance on 'expert science' to guide decision-making and poor consideration of fishers' contextually rich knowledge. That is thought to exacerbate the already low governance potential of SSF. Integrating scientific knowledge with fishers' knowledge is increasingly popular and is often assumed to help reduce levels of biophysical and institutional uncertainties. Many projects aimed at encouraging knowledge integration have, however, been unsuccessful. Our objective in this research was to assess factors that influence knowledge integration and the uptake of integrated knowledge into policy-making. We report results from 54 semi-structured interviews with SSF researchers and practitioners from around the globe. Our analysis is framed in terms of scientific credibility, societal legitimacy, and policy saliency, and we discuss cases that have been partially or fully successful in reducing uncertainty via push-and-pull-oriented boundary crossing initiatives. Our findings suggest that two important factors affect the science-policy-societal boundary: a lack of consensus among stakeholders about what constitutes credible knowledge and institutional uncertainty resulting from shifting policies and leadership change. A lack of training for scientific leaders and an apparent 'shelf-life' for community organizations highlight the importance of ongoing institutional support for knowledge integration projects. Institutional support may be enhanced through such investments, such as capacity building and specialized platforms for knowledge integration.