Google Trends Database Research Articles

Tendency to Consume Anabolic Steroids and Body-Building Supplements in the General Population: An Ecological Study

Background: Anabolic steroids and bodybuilding supplements are products that are readily available in the market and are increasingly being used by young people and athletes. This trend has become a social issue worldwide. Objectives: The purpose of this study is to examine and determine the changes in the prevalence and trends of anabolic steroid usage in Iran. Methods: This ecological study utilized the Google Trends database as its primary source. Initially, we searched for specific keywords related to "anabolic steroids (AS)", "Body-building supplements (BBS)", and "COVID-19" among all searches conducted using GTs from January 2017 to December 2022. Subsequently, Spearman's correlation coefficient was employed to assess the association between the keywords "AS" and "BBS" with the term "COVID-19" during various years. Results: The preference for consuming protein (58.19 ± 15.24) was highest among BBS, while recovery (12.14 ± 17.09) was the lowest. In the case of AS, the highest search frequency was related to Testosterone (56.64 ± 9.57), while the lowest was related to Primobolan (13.72 ± 8.21). In early 2020, we observed a significant impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the inclination to use BBS and AS, leading to a substantial decrease in willingness to use. However, we did not observe a statistically significant correlation between keyword searches for COVID-19 and AS & BBS. Conclusions: The trend of AS and BBS usage in Iran is on the rise. The indiscriminate use of supplements is a cause for concern and calls for educational interventions.

Tendency to Facial Rejuvenation in the General Population: An Ecological Study

Background: Today, the solutions for skin aging and rejuvenation methods are of special importance. Objectives: This study aims to investigate the desire to perform various methods related to facial rejuvenation in Iran and the world. Methods: It is an ecological study conducted using the Google Trends (GT) database. We initially searched for users' specified search terms related to "Botox," "Gel injection," "Laser," "Facelift," "Fillers," and "COVID-19" among all searches performed using GTs in the world and Iran from January 2017 to July 2023. Results: The trend of GT shows that the search volume for laser and filler services is higher than for other services worldwide. In Iran, laser and gel injections had the highest search volume until 2022. However, from 2022 onwards, fillers have become one of the top searched services. In 2020, with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the significant impact of the pandemic on facial rejuvenation procedures worldwide, including in Iran, became evident. There is a significant negative correlation between the volume of searches for COVID-19 and facial rejuvenation procedures worldwide (R2 = -0.52, P = 0.0001) and in Iran (R2 = -0.84, P = 0.0001). Conclusions: Many people worldwide and in Iran are looking for facial rejuvenation. Clinicians can enter this business with a positive outlook. GT data is a powerful tool for predicting the demand for facial rejuvenation procedures.

Use of Google Trends database during the COVID-19 pandemic: systematic review

Public concern about the high number of COVID-19 cases has caused many people to seek information related to the virus. The large number of searches regarding information via Google search will create trend data that are processed in graphical form by displaying keywords from searches made. These trends can be accessed via Google Trends. This study aimed to provide an overview of the use of Google Trends during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study used a systematic review method. Article searches were conducted through four databases, namely, Cochrane, Europe PMC, PubMed, and Science Direct. The literature search included articles published from January 2020 to September 2022 using the PRISMA guidelines. After reviewing 33 articles, it was found that there was an increase in searches for terms related to COVID-19 in the Google Trends database. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Google Trends was widely used to predict positive cases and deaths due to COVID-19, connoting the high public interest in the delta vaccine variant compared to other vaccine variants, increasing public interest regarding the symptoms of COVID-19; anosmia, a drastic increase in public interest in telehealth during a pandemic, the effects of a pandemic that trigger stress and worsen a person's mental health, and prevention efforts made by consuming adequate vitamins and nutrients to increase the body's resistance. In addition, several search engines from other countries and social media were used to complement the use of Google Trends. The Google Trends database can be used as an effective tool for estimating trends in the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic outbreak and as a reference for the government in making decisions regarding policies implemented to control COVID-19.

Using Data Mining and Time Series to Investigate ME and CFS Naming Preferences

There have been numerous iterations of naming convention specified for myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME) and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). As health care turns to “big data” analytics to gain insights, the Google Trends database was mined to ascertain worldwide trends of public interest in several ME- and CFS-related search categories between 2004 and 2019. Time series analysis revealed that though “chronic fatigue syndrome” remains the predominant search category in the ME and CFS field, the interest index declined at a rate of 2.77 per month during the 15-year study period. In the same time period, the interest index in “ME/CFS Hybrid” terms increased at a rate of 3.20 per month. Potential causal mechanisms for these trends and implications for patient sentiment analysis are discussed.

Internet searches for “insomnia” and “suicide” mediated by stay-at-home behaviors in 45 countries during the first 12 months of the COVID-19 pandemic

BackgroundThis study aimed to investigate (1) the mental health impacts (i.e., insomnia and suicide ideas) of the COVID-19 pandemic and (2) the mediation effects of stay-at-home levels on those impacts. MethodsThis study investigated monthly national COVID-19 deaths, stay-at-home levels, and internet searches for words for “insomnia” and “suicide” across 45 countries during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic (March 1, 2020, to February 28, 2021). We used the changes of internet search volumes for “insomnia” and “suicide” (from the Google Trends database) to represent the mental health impacts, and the time of cell phone activity at the residence (from Google Location History) to estimate the stay-at-home effects. We computed the proportion mediated (PM) caused by stay-at-home levels in the COVID-19 impacts on insomnia and suicide ideas, respectively. ResultsThroughout the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, national COVID-19 deaths significantly correlated to increased internet searches for “insomnia” but decreased searches for “suicide”. In addition, the mediation effect was significant in the first six-month of COVID-19-related increases in insomnia (PM = 42.6 %, p = 0.016), but this effect was not significant (PM = 13.1 %, p = 0.270) in the second six-month. By contrast, the mediation effect was not significant in the first six-month of COVID-19-related decrease in suicide ideation (PM = 8.1 %, p = 0.180), but this effect was significant (PM = 39.6 %, p = 0.014) in the second six-month. ConclusionsStay-at-home levels significantly mediated both increased insomnia and decreased suicide ideas, but within different time frames.

The use of Google Trends and Twitter data as a tool for evaluating public interest in hyaluronic acid eyelid filler

Google Trends and the Twitter Academic Research Product Tract (TARPT) are free, online tools that can be used to evaluate public interest in plastic surgery procedures. The aim of the study was to evaluate the correlation between online public interest in hyaluronic acid eyelid filler on two popular web platforms (Google and Twitter) and hyaluronic acid filler procedure volumes in the United States. The Google Trends database and the TARPT tool were used to calculate the number of annual Google searches and Twitter tweets, respectively, related to 10 search terms associated with hyaluronic acid eyelid filler injections from January 2010 to December 2020. Annual procedure volumes for hyaluronic acid filler injections were obtained from the American Society of Plastic Surgery (ASPS). Univariate linear regression was used to correlate Google searches to ASPS procedure volumes and Twitter tweet volumes to ASPS procedure volumes. Significant positive correlations were found between Google Trends data and ASPS procedure volumes for 8/10 search terms and between Twitter tweet volumes and ASPS procedure volumes for 6/10 search terms, respectively. Online public interest in eyelid filler related search terms increased significantly over time according to an exponential model (P < 0.0001). We observed statistically significant positive associations between public interest related to eyelid filler on two online platforms, Google and Twitter, and hyaluronic acid soft-tissue filler procedure volumes. The Google Trends and TARPT databases represent free information sources for surgeons that may be used to inform marketing and advertising decisions and to anticipate patient inquiries during the patient encounter. Information provided by the Google Trends and TARPT tools can be used by surgeons to (1) inform marketing and advertising strategies and (2) gain insight into which procedures patients are researching during a given time period, preparing them to best address the evolving needs of patients.

Development and improvement of the mechanism of professional orientation activities in the conditions of modern society

In modern society, career guidance activities are becoming more and more relevant, as rapid changes in the labor market require people to constantly adapt and develop professional skills. The development and improvement of the toolkit of the career guidance mechanism becomes a strategic task aimed at ensuring effective training and orientation of young people in modern conditions. The article is devoted to the analysis of modern trends in the development of vocational guidance tools and the determination of ways of its improvement. During the study of the toolkit of the career guidance mechanism, a bibliometric analysis was performed using such software tools as VOSviewer, Web of Science, Scopus Tools Analysis and Google Trends. A bibliographic analysis of the problems of development and improvement of the toolkit of the mechanism of career guidance activity, carried out with the help of the Scopus® database, made it possible to determine the high level of relevance of the selected research direction. In this study, the clustering of scientific papers on career guidance activities was carried out using the VOSviewer software. Seven research clusters have been identified that reflect modern tools in career guidance activities. Each cluster focuses on specific aspects, such as professional orientation of students, use of mentoring, consideration of the human factor, motivation of career decisions, analysis of career choices, development of modern skills, interests and psychological features. Clusters have important interrelationships and reflect a wide range of approaches to career guidance activities. The results of the study emphasize the importance of further development and improvement of tools and strategies for professional guidance of students and pupils. The article proposes the main elements of career guidance activities, which form a complex mechanism aimed at supporting students in choosing the most suitable career path. Within the framework of the mechanism, the most popular and relevant (based on the Google Trends database) career guidance tools are singled out.

Tendency to Consume Anabolic Steroids and Body-Building Supplements in the General Population: An Ecological Study

Background: Anabolic steroids and bodybuilding supplements are products that are readily available in the market and are increasingly being used by young people and athletes. This trend has become a social issue worldwide. Objectives: The purpose of this study is to examine and determine the changes in the prevalence and trends of anabolic steroid usage in Iran. Methods: This ecological study utilized the Google Trends database as its primary source. Initially, we searched for specific keywords related to "anabolic steroids (AS)", "Body-building supplements (BBS)", and "COVID-19" among all searches conducted using GTs from January 2017 to December 2022. Subsequently, Spearman's correlation coefficient was employed to assess the association between the keywords "AS" and "BBS" with the term "COVID-19" during various years. Results: The preference for consuming protein (58.19 ± 15.24) was highest among BBS, while recovery (12.14 ± 17.09) was the lowest. In the case of AS, the highest search frequency was related to Testosterone (56.64 ± 9.57), while the lowest was related to Primobolan (13.72 ± 8.21). In early 2020, we observed a significant impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the inclination to use BBS and AS, leading to a substantial decrease in willingness to use. However, we did not observe a statistically significant correlation between keyword searches for COVID-19 and AS &amp; BBS. Conclusions: The trend of AS and BBS usage in Iran is on the rise. The indiscriminate use of supplements is a cause for concern and calls for educational interventions.

The informational variables impact on firm’s liquidity in the French market

This paper investigates the informational variables impact on stock liquidity in the French market. We use two types of informational variables: Google search volume from Google Trends database as a proxy of information demand and news headlines for each stock as a proxy for information supply. Concerning the liquidity proxies, we use these measures: the quoted spread, the turnover price impact and the Amihud illiquidity ratio. The results indicate that information variables have an influence on stock liquidity.

Infodemiology on diet and weight loss behavior before and during COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia: Implication for public health promotion.

ObjectiveThis study set out to explore public interest through information search trends on diet and weight loss before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia.MethodsThe Google Trends database was evaluated for the relative internet search popularity on diet-related search terms, including top and rising diet-related terms. The search range was before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (April 2018 to January 2022) in the Indonesia region. We analyzed the Relative Search Volume (RSV) data using line charts, correlation, and comparison tests.ResultsSearch queries of “lose weight” was higher during the pandemic (58.34 ± 9.70 vs. 68.69 ± 7.72; p<0.05). No difference was found in diet-related searches before and after the pandemic. Public interest in the diet was higher after Eid al-Fitr (Muslims break fasting celebration day) and after the new year. Many fad diet (FD) terms were found on the top and rising terms.ConclusionAfter Eid al-Fitr and the new year were susceptible times for promoting a healthy diet in Indonesia. Potential need found before those times for education in inserting healthy food among fatty and sugary menus related to holidays and celebrations. Higher interest in “lose weight” was relevant to heightened obesity risk during the social restriction and heightened COVID-19 morbidity and mortality due to obesity. The high interest for rapid weight loss through FD needs to be resolved by promoting healthy diets with a more captivating message and messenger, like consistently using top terms in the keywords of the official healthy diet guidance. Future research could explore the relationship between diet and other behavior or with non-communicable diseases.

Big Data' and Data Mining' Role in Fight Against Drug Trafficking

The subject of the research is the ways of using modern Big Data and Data Mining methodologies to improve the process of lawmaking and law enforcement practice in the field of illicit trafficking of new psychoactive substances. Based on the experience of European countries and international experience in general, the author proves the need to create a methodology for early detection of the spread of new psychoactive substances that pose a significant threat to public health. This technique, according to the author, can be based on the use of methods of applied statistical analysis of the Google Trends database, which, in turn, can be used to combat drug crime in terms of detecting and predicting crimes. The practical significance of the conducted research lies in the development of a methodology for early detection of the spread of new psychoactive substances, which can be used to optimize the operational legislative response and improve law enforcement practice in the field of combating illicit drug trafficking. The scientific novelty of the conducted research consists in the creation of a predictive rule in the form of a linear regression equation that allows predicting the spread of such a new psychoactive substance as mephedrone in various regions of the Russian Federation, as well as planning operational investigative measures taking into account the identified risk zones. This study may be of interest to law enforcement officials, legal scholars, students and teachers of law schools.

Global online interest in cervical cancer care in the time of COVID-19: An infodemiology study

IntroductionInternet search trends may gauge public awareness and interest in cancer and help identify key areas for improvement in public health interventions and awareness campaigns. During the COVID-19 pandemic, cervical cancer screening significantly decreased, and we hypothesized that this would be mirrored by a decreased online interest in cervical cancer care. MethodsUsing the Google Trends database, we analyzed 2018–2021 global search trends in the following topics: cervical cancer, human papillomavirus, HPV vaccine, Cervarix, Gardasil, Pap test, HPV test, and colposcopy. Search trends were reported in the unit search volume index (SVI), which correlated with country-specific socioeconomic and epidemiologic characteristics. ResultsWe found a sharp decline in global online search interest in cervical cancer following the declaration of the COVID-19 pandemic, after which interest gradually increased. During the pandemic, SVI for “cervical cancer” and “Pap test” significantly decreased, while SVI for “HPV vaccine” significantly increased. Higher online search interest in cervical cancer care was found in low- and middle-income countries, and countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia, and Europe, reflecting their burden of disease and recent developments in cervical cancer control. ConclusionWhen the COVID-19 pandemic was declared, global online search interest in cervical cancer care decreased, reflective of the significant decline in cervical cancer screening rates during this time. Country-specific socioeconomic and epidemiologic characteristics correlated with online search interest in cervical cancer care. These global online search trends in cervical cancer may guide future public health interventions and awareness campaigns to eradicate this preventable disease worldwide.

Application of the Real-Time Tourism Data in Nowcasting the Service Consumption in Taiwan

Abstract In this paper, we examined the relationship between tourism and service consumption in Taiwan. The service consumption in Taiwan is nowcasted with the real-time tourism data in Google Trends database. We used the high-frequency internet-searching tourism data to predict the low-frequency service consumption data, for the real-time data with rich information could enhance prediction accuracy. Applying the Principal Components Analysis (PCA), we used the internet-searching tourism keywords in Google Trends database to construct the diffusion indices. Following the classification of the tourism keywords in Matsumoto et al. (2013), we classified those keywords into five groups and twenty-nine classifications. We focused on the reciprocal reactions between those diffusion indices with service consumption to conclude which component has higher influence on service consumption in Taiwan. Our empirical results indicated that the keywords in “Recreational areas, and Travel-related” group have significant effects on service consumption in Taiwan via nowcasting. Among the components of those diffusion indices, “Farm, Travel insurance, and Visitor center” are important variables with higher weights in common. JEL classification numbers: C60, C80, E01, E2, E60. Keywords: Nowcasting, the Principal Components Analysis (PCA), Service Consumption, Tourism.

Nowcasting the GDP in Taiwan and the Real-Time Tourism Data

Abstract In this paper, we examined the relationship between tourism and GDP in Taiwan. The GDP in Taiwan is nowcasted with the real-time tourism data in Google Trends database. We used the high-frequency internet-searching tourism data to predict the low-frequency GDP data, for the real-time data with rich information could enhance prediction accuracy. Applying the Principal Components Analysis (PCA), we used the internet-searching tourism keywords in Google Trends database to construct the diffusion indices. Following the classification of the tourism keywords in Matsumoto et al. (2013), we classified those keywords into five groups and twentynine classifications. We focused on the reciprocal reactions between those diffusion indices with GDP to conclude which component has higher influence on GDP in Taiwan. Our empirical results indicated that the keywords in “Recreational areas, Grand tour, and Travel-related” group have significant effects on various concepts of national income in Taiwan via nowcasting. Among the components of those diffusion indices, “Amusement park, Hot spring, Farm, Working holiday, and Travel insurance” are important variables with higher weights in common. JEL classification numbers: C60, C80, E01, E60. Keywords: Nowcasting, the Principal Components Analysis (PCA), Internetsearching Keywords, GDP, Tourism.

Keyword portfolio optimization in paid search advertising

This paper uses investment portfolio theory to determine budget allocation in paid online search advertising. The approach focuses on risk-adjusted performance and favors diversified portfolios of unrelated or negatively correlated keywords. An empirical investigation employs averages, variances and covariances for keyword popularities, which are estimated using growth rates for 15 major sectors taken from the Google Trends database. In line with portfolio theory, the results show that the average keyword popularity growth is strongly related to the standard deviation of growth for each keyword in the sample (R2=74%). Hypothesis testing of differences in Sharpe ratios documents a significantly better performance of the proposed approach compared to that of other strategies currently used by practitioners.

Interests, Motives, and Psychological Burdens in Times of Crisis and Lockdown: Google Trends Analysis to Inform Policy Makers.

BackgroundIn the face of the COVID-19 pandemic, the German government and the 16 German federal states implemented a variety of nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) to decelerate the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus and thus prevent a collapse of the health care system. These measures comprised, among others, social distancing, the temporary closure of shops and schools, and a ban of large public gatherings and meetings with people not living in the same household.ObjectiveIt is fair to assume that the issued NPIs have heavily affected social life and psychological functioning. We therefore aimed to examine possible effects of this lockdown in conjunction with daily new infections and the state of the national economy on people’s interests, motives, and other psychological states.MethodsWe derived 249 keywords from the Google Trends database, tapping into 27 empirically and rationally selected psychological domains. To overcome issues with reliability and specificity of individual indicator variables, broad factors were derived by means of time series factor analysis. All domains were subjected to a change point analysis and time series regression analysis with infection rates, NPIs, and the state of the economy as predictors. All keywords and analyses were preregistered prior to analysis.ResultsWith the pandemic arriving in Germany, significant increases in people’s search interests were observed in virtually all domains. Although most of the changes were short-lasting, each had a distinguishable onset during the lockdown period. Regression analysis of the Google Trends data confirmed pronounced autoregressive effects for the investigated variables, while forecasting by means of the tested predictors (ie, daily new infections, NPIs, and the state of economy) was moderate at best.ConclusionsOur findings indicate that people’s interests, motives, and psychological states are heavily affected in times of crisis and lockdown. Specifically, disease- and virus-related domains (eg, pandemic disease, symptoms) peaked early, whereas personal health strategies (eg, masks, homeschooling) peaked later during the lockdown. Domains addressing social life and psychosocial functioning showed long-term increases in public interest. Renovation was the only domain to show a decrease in search interest with the onset of the lockdown. As changes in search behavior are consistent over multiple domains, a Google Trends analysis may provide information for policy makers on how to adapt and develop intervention, information, and prevention strategies, especially when NPIs are in effect.

Feminist and transfeminist ciberativisms in Brazil

The study exposes the picture of feminist and transfeminist cyberactivisms, particularizing the Brazilian experience. In this attempt, he portrayed the relationship between feminisms, transfeminisms and cyberactivisms; inventorized feminist and transfeminist pages and virtual communities in Brazil; and ascertained the growth rate in the creation of feminist and transfeminist virtual communities. It was referred to in a survey on the social networks of Facebook, Instagram and Twitter, as well as in the Google Trends database. It was classified as feminist research, based on bibliographic research and field research. In the investigation, profiles, pages and virtual feminist and transfeminist communities were mapped, as a contribution and scenario of cyberactivisms in Brazil, demarcating percentages of creation and reach of popularity.

Effect of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Interest in Home-Based Exercise: An Application of Digital Epidemiology

Background and aims: According to the World Health Organization (WHO), immediate self-quarantine is assumed as the best course of action for highly contagious diseases. Since the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, many individuals have become overweight and are also suffering from physical problems. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on interest in home-based exercise. Methods: This digital epidemiological study used data sources outside the health system. This descriptive study with a comprehensive electronic systematic search in the Google Trends database using the keyword of "home-based exercise" retrieved the relevant data about the Internet search activity of Iranian community members. The data were accordingly obtained within two time intervals, i.e., from February 18, 2020 to October 18, 2020 and eight months prior to the outbreak of COVID-19 (June 18, 2019 to February 18, 2020). To analyze the data, the Wilcoxon test and the Spearman’s correlation coefficient were used. Results: The results showed significant increase in "home-based exercise" Google search in the eight-month time interval during COVID-19 compared with the same period before the pandemic (P&lt;0.001). Moreover, there was a significant correlation between "home-based exercise" Google search and positive COVID-19 cases in the time intervals of February 18, 2020 to April 18, 2020 (r=0.756, P=0.0001), April 18, 2020 to June 18, 2020 (r=-461, P=0.0001), but not June 18, 2020 to August 18, 2020 (r=0.044, P=0.737), August 18, 2020 to October 18, 2020 (r=0.246, P=0.056), and over time (r=-0.083, P=0.0195). Conclusion: The prevalence rate of the COVID-19 pandemic and social constraints including self-quarantine seem to have raised people’s interest in doing exercises, especially home-based exercises.

European depositors’ behavior and crisis sentiment

Abstract Employing monthly search volume data on crisis-related queries from the Google Trends database, we introduce two modified Google search-based crisis sentiment indicators as measures of depositors’ fear. These indices capture depositors’ crisis sentiment, and they are found to be significant drivers of bank deposits flows across European Union countries. Our findings indicate that countries for which the search intensity of crisis-related keywords is high, they tend to witness bank deposit outflows. By employing a Panel Vector Autoregressive approach, we document the robustness of our findings. Our findings suggest that policy makers should incorporate depositors’ fear in their macroprudential policies as predictor of bank insolvency.

The impact of monthly campaigns and other high-profile media coverage on public interest in 13 malignancies: a Google Trends analysis.

It is estimated that more than 600,000 people will die of cancer in the United States in 2020. Annual cancer diagnoses throughout the country are expected to rise in the coming years, which may further strain the American healthcare system. As such, it is vital that public health campaigns intended to reduce cancer morbidity and mortality are successful. Monthly cancer awareness campaigns have been used in the past to raise awareness and funding for various malignancies. One notable example is the ‘Pink October’ campaign to raise awareness for breast cancer. There has been limited study, however, on the effectiveness of cancer awareness campaigns for other cancers such as colorectal cancer, prostate cancer and cervical cancer. High-profile media coverage of celebrity cancer diagnoses and/or cancer-related deaths is another method by which knowledge of common cancers is dispersed to the public. In this study, we evaluate the impact of monthly cancer awareness campaigns as well as celebrity cancer diagnoses and/or deaths on Internet search traffic regarding various malignancies.We used the Google Trends database to evaluate public interest in 13 different cancers (and their respective cancer screening methods, when applicable) from January 2010 to June 2020. Public interest in 6 of 13 cancers (cervical cancer, colorectal cancer, skin cancer, ovarian cancer, breast cancer and lung cancer) was significantly higher in their respective awareness months when compared to the rest of the year. Furthermore, peak public interest for 9 of 13 cancers was associated with a media-event such as a monthly awareness campaign or celebrity diagnoses and/or death. Our findings illustrate the important role that the media plays in facilitating public interest in common cancers and their screening methods. Cancer awareness months can serve as an effective tool to increase Internet search traffic regarding a given malignancy. In the future, public health agencies can attempt to utilise increased search traffic to better educate the public, raise funds and improve enrolment in cancer screening programmes that reduce cancer morbidity and mortality.