Gold Macaw Research Articles

Parrot Species Recognition by using CNN & SVM

This research project addresses the imperative task of parrot species recognition through the integration of Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) methodologies. Focused on three distinct parrot species—'Blue and Gold Macaw,' 'Ringneck Parakeet,' and 'Sun Conure'—the study explores the efficacy of advanced machine learning techniques in ornithological research. The CNN serves as a robust feature extractor, autonomously learning intricate visual patterns crucial for species identification. Meanwhile, the SVM acts as a discriminative classifier, optimizing decision boundaries in the feature space. Comparative analysis reveals the CNN's superior accuracy of 95%, surpassing the SVM's 83.33%. The visual representation, a bar chart, provides a clear and accessible depiction of the research findings. Titled "Comparative Analysis of CNN and SVM for Accuracy Assessment of Parrot Species," the chart ensures relevance and context for the audience. Overall, this research contributes valuable insights into the potential of deep learning in parrot species recognition, with implications for automated wildlife monitoring and biodiversity conservation in the realm of ornithology.

Crop Reconstruction Surgery on Blue and Gold Macaws (Ara Ararauna) with Recurrent Crop Fistula

A crop fistula is an abnormal tunnel in the skin and crop tissue due to damage to the crop wall. The causes are ingestion of foreign bodies, sharp objects, trauma, chronic irritation and crop burn. A female Blue and Gold Macaw (Ara ararauna), five months old and 0.75 kg body weight, came to the Teaching Veterinary Hospital, Universitas Brawijaya, due to dehiscence wounds with infection in the crop area. At first, the bird had crop fistula due to crop burn and had done an ingluviotomy procedure twice at another veterinary clinic but repeated dehiscence after surgery. Diagnosis based on history, clinical symptoms, physical examination and clinical findings is recurrent crop fistula. An ingluviotomy and debridement to clean and separate the skin and crop tissue. The principle of surgical procedure is to increase the healing potential of corrected healthy tissue. Surgical techniques and postoperative care should be optimal to ensure permanent wound healing and not cause recurrent dehiscence. The development of surgical wound healing improved until the 18th postoperative day, and neither dehiscence nor infection occurred.

Atypical Mycosis in Psittacine Birds: A Retrospective Study.

A retrospective study was conducted on parrots submitted from necropsy to the Department of Veterinary Pathology, School of Biosciences and Veterinary, University of Camerino, Italy, from 2007 to 2018. From a total of 2,153 parrots examined at post-mortem, four cases were diagnosed with atypical mycosis and were considered for determination of the fungus species by PCR. A Fischer's lovebird (Agapornis fischeri), Peach-faced lovebirds (Agapornis roseicollis), and two Blue and Gold Macaws (Ara ararauna) from four different aviaries died after some days of lethargy and ruffled feathers. Records of gross necropsy and histopathological exams (H&E, PAS, and Grocott stain) were described and biomolecular analyses were carried out. No specific gross lesions were appreciated at necropsy, while histopathology evidenced a systemic mycosis in several organs, particularly in the lungs. In affected organs, broad and non-septate hyphae, suggestive of mycoses, were observed. Molecularly, Mucor racemosus (Fischer's lovebird) and M. circinelloides (Peach-faced lovebirds) were identified from formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded (FFPE) lung and liver tissue. In addition, Alternaria alternata and Fusicladium spp. (respectively in male and female Blue and Gold macaws) were identified in FFPE tissue from several organs; whereas the role of Mucor spp. as true pathogens is well-demonstrated, and the behavior of A. alternata and Fusicladium spp. in macaws as opportunistic pathogens have been discussed. To our knowledge, this report is the first one reporting mucormycosis caused by M. racemosus and M. circinelloides in lovebirds, and A. alternata and Fusicladium spp. in macaws.

Gross Anatomical Features of the Tongue of Blue and Gold Macaw

Gross Anatomical Features of the Tongue of Blue and Gold Macaw

Comparison Of Four Anti-Avian IgY Secondary Antibodies Used In Western Blot And Dot-Blot ELISA To Detect Avian Bornavirus Antibodies In Four Different Bird Species.

PurposeThis study evaluated the specificity of different avian secondary antibodies used in Western blot and dot-blot ELISA to detect avian bornavirus antibodies in bird plasma.MethodsPlasma samples were collected from: two Blue and gold macaws, one positive and one negative for avian bornavirus by RT-PCR; a Cockatiel and a Monk parakeet prior to and following experimental infection; and, two Mallards, one positive and one negative for avian bornavirus by RT-PCR Samples were analyzed by Western blot and dot-blot ELISA that incorporated recombinant avian bornavirus nucleoprotein as the target analyte. Four species-specific anti-IgY secondary antibodies were used in the assays: goat anti-macaw IgY, goat anti-bird IgY, goat anti-duck IgY, and rabbit anti-chicken IgY.ResultsIn the Western blot, anti-macaw IgY secondary antibody produced strong signals with Blue and gold macaw and Cockatiel positive plasma, but no signal with Mallard positive plasma. Anti-bird IgY secondary antibody produced strong signals with Blue and gold macaw, Cockatiel, and Mallard positive plasma. Anti-duck and anti-chicken IgY secondary antibody produced a strong and moderate signal, respectively, only with Mallard positive plasma. In the dot-blot ELISA, there was a distinct and significant difference (P<0.05) in the signal intensity between the different secondary antibodies within a bird species. Anti-macaw IgY secondary antibody produced significantly (P<0.05) stronger signals than the other secondary antibodies in Blue and gold macaw, Cockatiel, and Monk parakeet positive plasma, while anti-duck IgY secondary antibody produced significantly (P<0.05) stronger signals than the other secondary antibodies in Mallard positive plasma.ConclusionIn testing psittacines with immunoassays, and especially in assays that incorporate short incubation reaction times such as a dot-blot ELISA, species-specific anti-IgY secondary antibodies provided more accurate results.

Extrapyramidal side effects in a blue and gold macaw ( Ara ararauna ) treated with amitriptyline

Abstract Extrapyramidal side effects were observed in a 17-year-old female blue and gold macaw ( Ara ararauna ) that presented with an acute onset of dystonic reactions (repetitive and abnormal motions as well as head bobbing) and akathisia (restlessness and pacing) a few hours after a single partial dose of amitriptyline (5 mg/kg) orally. The patient was concurrently being treated with meloxicam (1 mg/kg orally every 12 hours) and had previously been treated with hydroxyzine, prednisolone, leuprolide acetate, and deslorelin acetate, for chronic feather damaging behavior. The patient was hospitalized and treated with diphenhydramine (2-3 mg/kg intramuscularly [IM] every 12 hours, 3 doses), propranolol (0.04 mg/kg IM once), cyproheptadine (1.2 mg/kg orally twice), midazolam (0.2-3 mg/kg IM as needed), and supportive care. Resolution of clinical signs was not achieved with any attempted therapy, but the dystonia and akathisia progressively resolved during 5 days. Residual signs were still visible at discharge. The severe adverse effects encountered with what appears to be an overdose of amitriptyline in this case is a reminder that species-specific pharmacologic and toxicologic studies on tricyclic antidepressants are needed and that psychotherapeutic agents may be associated with neurologic adverse effects, especially when using extrapolated doses. In addition, this case illustrates that tricyclic antidepressant must be started at a low dose in birds and follow a gradual titration approach to avoid adverse effects and maximize treatment efficacy.

Chronic dermatitis caused by Lactobacillus jensenii infection in a blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna)

A 5-year-old sexually intact female blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) was evaluated because of a swelling on the right side of the face and irritated area on the ventral aspect of the keel. Clinical findings were consistent with dermatitis (right facial lesion) and a coalescing subdermal granuloma (ventral keel lesion). Hematologic analysis revealed monocytosis and mild anemia. Histologic evaluation of the ventral keel lesion revealed evidence of chronic heterophilic dermatitis with multinucleated giant cells and bacterial rods and cocci. An unspeciated gram-positive rod-shaped bacterium was isolated via aerobic bacterial culture. Results of bacterial biochemical tests suggested the organism was a type of Actinomyces. A 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis was performed; results indicated the organism was Lactobacillus jensenii. Extensive surgical debridement of the branching granuloma, which extended throughout the length of the keel, followed by long-term treatment with ciprofloxacin and clindamycin provided full resolution of clinical signs. No recrudescence of clinical signs was evident for up to 18 months after the initial evaluation. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of Lactobacillus-associated dermatitis or subdermal granuloma in the scientific literature and the second report of L jensenii in avian species. Use of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis was instrumental in the identification of this fastidious organism, indicating the method's usefulness as a diagnostic tool.

PULMONARY ADENOCARCINOMA WITH OSSEOUS METASTASIS AND SECONDARY PARESIS IN A BLUE AND GOLD MACAW (ARA ARARAUNA)

A 16-yr-old female blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) was presented with an acute history of lethargy, inappetance, ataxia, and paralysis. The bird had rapidly progressed from a normal state to complete inability to perch or ambulate within a 48-hr period. Neurologic examination revealed bilateral hind limb paresis with upper motor neuron signs present in both legs and the vent. Radiographs identified multiple nodular soft-tissue opacities within the cranial coelomic cavity and a single nodule superimposed with the thoracic spine. The bird was euthanized and submitted for necropsy, which revealed a primary pulmonary adenocarcinoma with multiple sites of osseous metastasis, including the vertebrae, and subsequent spinal cord compression. This is the first report of pulmonary adenocarcinoma in this species, although reports of similar tumors in other psittacines have been published. This report, along with others previously published, suggests that vertebral metastasis of primary pulmonary tumors may be more common in psittacine species than previously recognized and, as such, should be considered as a differential diagnosis in psittacine birds exhibiting signs of neurologic dysfunction attributed to a spinal cord lesion.

Avian bornavirus genotype 4 recovered from naturally infected psittacine birds with proventricular dilatation disease in South Africa

The occurrence of proventricular dilatation disease caused by avian bornavirus (ABV) in captive psittacine birds has long been suspected in South Africa. This report documents the first detection by polymerase chain reaction and gene sequence analyses of ABV from three clinical cases of proventricular dilatation disease (PDD) in captive bred blue and gold macaws (Araara rauna) resident in this country. Lymphoplasmacytic encephalitis, gastrointestinal myenteric gangioneuritis and leiomyositis were the most prominent histopathological changes and ABV genotype 4 was detected in tissues from all three birds. Immunohistochemical stains for ABV antigen revealed positive labelling of neurons and glial cells of the brain, myenteric ganglia and nerve fibres as well as smooth muscle cells of the gastrointestinal tract of all three birds. In one bird, positive labelling of the peripheral nerves was observed. The identical sequence of the analaysed genome fragment of all three samples, history that all of these birds had originated from the same breeding facility, and young age at presentation raise the question of possible vertical transmission.

Multiple Tracheal Resections and Anastomoses in a Blue and Gold Macaw (Ara ararauna)

A 1.5-year-old, male blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) was anesthetized for a health examination and blood collection. The following day it was returned for episodes of coughing. The bird was presented again 13 days after the initial presentation with severe dyspnea. A tracheal stenosis was diagnosed by endoscopy and treated by surgical resection of 5 tracheal rings and tracheal anastomosis. The bird was discharged but returned 2 days later with a recurrent stenosis. Bougienage and balloon dilation of the stenotic area were performed separately; each resulted in less than 48 hours' improvement in clinical signs after treatment. A second tracheal resection and anastomosis was performed, during which an additional 10 tracheal rings were removed. This second anastomosis was significantly more difficult to complete given the marked variation in diameter of the proximal and distal tracheal segments. The macaw recovered without complication and has had no recurrence of respiratory abnormalities 2 years after the second surgery. This report describes the longest total tracheal segment to be resected, followed by tracheal anastomosis, in a psittacine bird. The positive outcome in this case suggests that, when surgical therapy is elected, an aggressive approach is necessary to prevent recurrence of tracheal stenosis. In addition, macaws can recover well even after significant lengths of the trachea are resected.

Anesthesia Case of the Month

History A 2-year-old 900-g (2.0-lb) female blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) was referred to the Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine with a history of respiratory distress and coughing. No other abnormalities were observed on external physical examination. Results of serum biochemical analysis revealed high creatine kinase (CK) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities, and CBC results revealed a high number of heterophils. Radiography was diagnostically unrewarding. Initiation of treatment for fungal and bacterial infections and oxygen supplementation failed to alleviate the bird’s clinical signs of disease. Partial obstruction of the trachea was a differential diagnosis for the bird’s respiratory problems. Therefore, tracheoscopy was required as part of the diagnostic workup. This precluded tracheal intubation as a means for maintaining general anesthesia.

Isolation of Salmonella Typhimurium from Dead Blue and Gold Macaws (Ara ararauna)

Two blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) chicks died of fatal salmonellosis in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. The birds were histopathologically and microbiologically examined. Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhimurium was isolated from the liver, spleen, heart, lung, kidney, and intestine of both birds. All strains were susceptible to ampicillin, cephalothin, cefotaxime, enrofloxacin, nalidixic acid, gentamicin, streptomycin, chloramphenicol, fosfomycin, tetracycline, nitrofurantoin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. The XbaI-PFGE profile of the Salmonella Typhimurium isolated from the two animals, which shared the same cage, was identical and showed a unique pattern compared with 301 isolates included in the PulseNet national database of Salmonella pulsed-field gel electrophoresis patterns. This is the first report that describes fatal cases of salmonellosis from blue and gold macaws.

Conjunctival xanthoma in a blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna)

A 17-year-old female blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) presented for evaluation of a discreet, conjunctival mass of the OD. No other abnormalities were found on ophthalmic or physical examination. A heterophilic leukocytosis was present on the complete blood count, and elevated aspartate aminotransferase activity, creatinine kinase activity and cholesterol were present on the plasma biochemistry panel. Surgical removal of the mass was complete and no recurrence has occurred by six months after excision. Reduction of dietary fats was recommended to reduce serum cholesterol levels and reduce the likelihood of future occurrence of xanthomas in this bird.

Extrapyramidal Side Effects in a Blue and Gold Macaw (Ara ararauna) Treated With Haloperidol and Clomipramine

A diagnosis of adverse extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) was reached in a 14-year-old female blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) that presented with disseminated dystonia (manifesting as pacing, head bobbing, and circling), intermittent ataxia, and coarse-muscle tremors of 60 hours duration. The patient had been treated 23 days previously with haloperidol decanoate (1.7 mg/kg IM once), and for 3 days before hospitalization with clomipramine HCl at a prescribed dosage of 3.9 mg/kg PO q12h. The patient was treated with supportive care, a gradual reduction in the clomipramine dose, and intramuscular and oral diphenhydramine (2 mg/kg q12h). As commonly observed in human patients with drug-induced EPS, a dramatic resolution of clinical signs was observed within 2 hours after the first intramuscular administration of diphenhydramine. It is recommended that EPS be considered in macaws experiencing neurologic signs secondary to clomipramine administration and, in particular, in those treated concurrently or previously with haloperidol.

Chlamydophila psittaci genotype E/B transmission from African grey parrots to humans

Thirty-six birds from a parrot relief and breeding centre, as well as the manager, were examined for the presence of Chlamydophila psittaci. In the relief unit, 5 of 20 African grey parrots showed depression, ruffled feathers, loss of weight and mild dyspnoea. The birds received no antibiotic treatment. Birds of the breeding unit, 14 blue and gold macaws and 2 green-winged macaws, were healthy. They received doxycycline at the start of each breeding season. The manager complained of shortness of breath but took no medication. Using a nested PCR enzyme immunoassay (EIA), Cp. psittaci was detected in the faeces of all five sick birds, as well as in a nasal and pharyngeal swab from the manager. The veterinarian and her assistant became infected while sampling the parrots, as pharyngeal and nasal swabs from both were positive by nested PCR/EIA after visiting the parrot relief and breeding centre, but they showed no clinical signs of infection. Bacteria could be isolated from three of five nested PCR/EIA-positive birds, the manager and the veterinarian, but not from the veterinary assistant. Using an ompA genotype-specific real-time PCR, Cp. psittaci genotype E/B was identified as the transmitted strain. All breeding birds tested negative for Cp. psittaci. This is believed to be the first report on Cp. psittaci genotype E/B transmission from parrots to humans. In contradiction to genotype A strains, which are thought to be highly virulent to both birds and men, the currently described genotype E/B strain apparently caused no severe clinical symptoms in either parrots or humans.

Granulomatous nephritis in psittacines associated with parasitism by the trematode Paratanaisia spp.

Trematodes belonging to the family Eucotylidae are parasites of the kidney and ureter, and affect several bird species. However, psittacines have not been identified as hosts of these parasites. Three birds, an adult female blue and gold macaw ( Ara ararauna), an adult female blue-winged macaw ( Propyrrhura maracana) and an adult male white-eared parakeet ( Pyrrhura leucotis) were admitted at the Veterinary Hospital of the Fundação Zoo-Botânica de Belo Horizonte, Brazil (FZB/BH). All three birds had severe dehydration and cachexia. The blue and gold macaw presented with dyspneia, apathy, and incoordination. Blood cell counts indicated discrete anemia and leucopoenia. Blood biochemistry revealed significant increase in levels of uric acid (61 mg/dl) and blood urea nitrogen (22 mg/dl). The bird died within 24 h after admission. The other two birds were admitted with similar clinical signs, but died prior to a complete clinical examination. At the necropsy, in all the three birds, the kidneys were enlarged with brown-yellowish discoloration and irregular cortical surface. On the cut surface, there was a brown-yellowish material with few visible parasites flowing out of the parenchyma. When fragments of the kidneys were placed in 10% formalin, a large number of trematodes came out of the renal parenchyma. The parasites were identified as Paratanaisia robusta infecting all three birds, and P. bragai infecting the blue-winged macaw and the white-eared parakeet. Histologically, there was an interstitial, multifocal to coalescent, lymphoplasmacytic infiltrate with some epithelioid macrophages, and a few heterophils, characterizing a granulomatous nephritis. Adult worms and eggs were observed within dilated tubules and in the renal pelvis. In the blue and gold macaw, some parasite eggs were located interstitially associated with an intense adjacent granulomatous reaction.

Identification and comparison of marbofloxacin metabolites from the plasma of ball pythons (Python regius) and blue and gold macaws (Ara ararauna)

Marbofloxacin is a veterinary only, synthetic, broad spectrum fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agent. In mammals, approximately 40% of the oral dose of marbofloxacin is excreted unchanged in the urine; the remaining is excreted via the bile as unchanged drug in the feces. The Vd ranges from 1.1 (cattle) to 1.3 (dog, goat, swine) L/kg. Because of extra-label use of marbofloxacin in birds and reptiles, this study was designed to determine the profile of metabolites in plasma and compare the circulating metabolite profile between a reptile and an avian species. Six adult ball pythons (Python regius) and 10 blue and gold macaws (Ara ararauna) were used in this study. The macaws were dosed both i.v. and p.o. with a single 2.5 mg/kg administration where as the pythons received a single 10 mg/kg dose both i.v. and p.o. The metabolite profiles of marbofloxacin in the plasma of these species were determined using a high performance liquid chromatography system with a mass spectrometer for detection (LC/MS/MS). Mass spectra data generated from the snake and bird plasma samples were compared with previously reported LC/MS/MS mass spectral data. Evidence does not suggest differences due to route of administration (i.v. vs. p.o.) in either species. Four chromatographic peaks with resulting daughter spectrum were identified and represent 12 possible metabolite structures. All of the proposed metabolites, except for the N-oxide, appear to be unique to macaws. The potential metabolites identified in macaws appear to be very different than those reported for chickens.

Carpenter JW, Olsen JH, Randle-Port M, et al. Pharmacokinetics of azithromycin in the blue and gold macaw ( Ara ararauna) after intravenous and oral administration. J Zoo Wildl Med 36:606-609, 2005

Carpenter JW, Olsen JH, Randle-Port M, et al. Pharmacokinetics of azithromycin in the blue and gold macaw ( Ara ararauna) after intravenous and oral administration. J Zoo Wildl Med 36:606-609, 2005

Tissue Distribution of Psittacid Herpesviruses in Latently Infected Parrots, Repeated Sampling of Latently Infected Parrots and Prevalence of Latency in Parrots Submitted for Necropsy

Psittacid herpesvirus-1 (PsHV-1) is the cause of an acute fatal disease in parrots and is implicated as the cause of papillomatous lesions of the digestive tract. Not all infections cause disease and some parrots are infected asymptomatically. Latently infected parrots are potential sources for virus dissemination. Tissues from parrots that died spontaneously with a history of coming from flocks where a PsHV-1 outbreak had occurred were examined for PsHV-1 DNA. Fourteen of 16 parrots examined were infected with at least 1 variant of PsHV-1; of these 13 (93%) had viral DNA in either or both the oral and cloacal mucosa, suggesting that most latently infected parrots could be detected by sampling these sites. Nine of 9 parrots shown to be infected 5 years prior to this study were positive again on repeat sampling and were infected with the same virus genotype. Opportunistic sampling of parrots submitted for diagnostic necropsy indicated that the prevalence of PsHV-1 in parrots in the sampled population was approximately 9.3%. PsHV-1 genotypes 1, 2, and 3 were found in these birds, but genotype 4 was not. Six necropsy specimens were found to be infected with two PsHV-1 genotypes and it was concluded that infection with one serotype did not protect against infection with another. Psittacid herpesvirus 2 (PsHV-2) was identified in 4 African grey parrots and a blue and gold macaw. Prior to this study PsHV-2 had only been found in African grey parrots.

Postintubation Tracheal Stenosis in a Blue and Gold Macaw (Ara ararauna) Resolved With Tracheal Resection and Anastomosis

A 20-year-old female blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) was presented with an acute onset of labored breathing and vocalization changes. Tracheoscopy revealed a stenotic tracheal lesion, which reduced the luminal diameter by approximately 75%. Tracheal resection and anastomosis was performed, and the tracheal lesion was submitted for histopathologic analysis. Postoperative therapy included antibiotic, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory medications. The trachea healed with no major complications. The histologic diagnosis was mild, focal, chronic tracheitis. The cause of the lesion was presumed to be postintubation stenosis on the basis of the normal gross appearance of the external trachea, the location of the lesion, and a recent history of general anesthesia delivered by endotracheal tube.