Gold Anode Research Articles

A Guide for the Electrochemical Stability of Thiolate Self-Assembled Monolayers on Gold in Various Electrolytes

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) are widely used in surface chemistry to modify surfaces for various applications such as biosensing1, electronics2, and electrocatalysis3. SAMs are attractive due to their high surface coverage and stability. Although studies have been conducted to test the effects of temperature, air exposure, and solvent degradation on SAMs stability 4,5, the electrochemical stability of SAMs has not been as extensively studied. Existing literature on this topic mainly focuses on the reductive desorption limits of thiolate SAMs in alkaline conditions6,7. Recent work by Ramos et al. demonstrated pH-dependent stable potential windows in which SAMs remained intact on electrode surfaces of different metals8. However, there is still a need to verify and expand on this work.To address this need, we aim to create a comprehensive guide on the electrochemical stability of thiolate SAMs on gold electrodes. We will use cyclic voltammograms (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and electrochemical surface plasmon resonance (EC-SPR) to probe and verify the stable electrochemical potential windows in both aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytes. We have conducted studies on three aqueous solutions at three distinct pH, perchloric acid, potassium hydroxide, and sodium chloride. For non-aqueous solvents we tested a wide range of different organic solvents including acetonitrile, dimethylformamide, propylene carbonate, and various alcohols. Our findings demonstrate that the main factor for SAM stability in aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytes is the pH and solubility of the SAM, respectively. Our poster will present our current work and outlook on this topic.(1) Dauphin-Ducharme, P.; Ploense, K. L.; Arroyo-Currás, N.; Kippin, T. E.; Plaxco, K. W. Electrochemical Aptamer-Based Sensors: A Platform Approach to High-Frequency Molecular Monitoring In Situ in the Living Body. In Biomedical Engineering Technologies: Volume 1; Ossandon, M. R., Baker, H., Rasooly, A., Eds.; Methods in Molecular Biology; Springer US: New York, NY, 2022; pp 479–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1803-5_25.(2) Hatton, R. A.; Willis, M. R.; Chesters, M. A.; Rutten, F. J. M.; Briggs, D. Enhanced Hole Injection in Organic Light-Emitting Diodes Using a SAM-Derivatised Ultra-Thin Gold Anode Supported on ITO Glass. J. Mater. Chem. 2003, 13 (1), 38–43. https://doi.org/10.1039/B208169P.(3) Shang, H.; Wallentine, S. K.; Hofmann, D. M.; Zhu, Q.; Murphy, C. J.; Baker, L. R. Effect of Surface Ligands on Gold Nanocatalysts for CO2 Reduction. Chem. Sci. 2020, 11 (45), 12298–12306. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0SC05089J.(4) Schlenoff, J. B.; Li, M.; Ly, H. Stability and Self-Exchange in Alkanethiol Monolayers. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117 (50), 12528–12536. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja00155a016.(5) Laibinis, P. E.; Whitesides, G. M. Self-Assembled Monolayers of n-Alkanethiolates on Copper Are Barrier Films That Protect the Metal against Oxidation by Air. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114 (23), 9022–9028. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja00049a038.(6) Salvarezza, R. C.; Carro, P. The Electrochemical Stability of Thiols on Gold Surfaces. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2018, 819, 234–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2017.10.046.(7) Beulen, M. W. J.; Kastenberg, M. I.; van Veggel, F. C. J. M.; Reinhoudt, D. N. Electrochemical Stability of Self-Assembled Monolayers on Gold. Langmuir 1998, 14 (26), 7463–7467. https://doi.org/10.1021/la981031z.(8) Ramos, N.; Medlin, J. W.; Holewinski, A. Electrochemical Stability of Thiolate Self-Assembled Monolayers on Au, Pt, and Cu; preprint; Chemistry, 2022. https://doi.org/10.26434/chemrxiv-2022-dt7dk. Figure 1

Efficient carbon electrode perovskite solar cells with robust buffer interfaces

Carbon electrode perovskite solar cell has great potential in commercial application based on its low cost, superior stability, and facile fabrication process. However, its performance still lags behind that of devices with gold anode, which greatly attributes to the insufficient charge transport and collection at carbon anode side. Herein, efficient anode buffer contact is built by constructing an organic/inorganic composite hole transport bilayer together with strategic carbon precovering/postcovering anode. Adding a charge selective polythiophene (P3HT) layer between perovskite and nickel oxide (NiOx) can reduce charge transfer recombination loss, inhibit moisture infiltration, and crystallographically protect the perovskite underneath from being corroded by carbon paste. Together with a dense and pin-hole free hole transport layer (HTL)/carbon contact through precovering diluted carbon paste, the modified anode buffer interfaces also promote a facilitated charge collection, thus enhancing the photovoltaic performance of low-cost carbon electrode perovskite solar cells to a state-of-the-art value of 20.8% with an enhanced operational stability. This work provides adaptable and robust anode buffer interfaces for efficient, stable and low cost carbon electrode perovskite cells toward commercialization.

Anodically‐Generated Alkyl Radicals Derived from Carboxylic Acids as Reactive Intermediates for Addition to Alkenes

AbstractElectrochemically driven C−C coupling has the potential to reduce the cost and environmental impact of some organic syntheses currently accomplished through thermochemical methods. Here, we use electrochemical oxidation of carboxylic acids as a source of reactive carbon‐centered radicals that enable radical addition to alkenes in the anode boundary layer. We demonstrate an optimization of reaction conditions to suppress the thermodynamically favored, but synthetically undesirable radical self‐coupling in favor of radical addition to styrene. In methanol solvent, 88 % selectivity and 72 % Faradaic efficiency for targeted functionalized benzenes are achieved. For low current densities, iridium anodes outperform platinum, gold, palladium, and glassy carbon anodes. With constant potential or constant current electrolyses, the deposition of organic by‐products on the catalyst surface leads to anode passivation. We show that periodic cathodic current pulses effectively regenerate the catalyst. Lastly, we confirm the role of free radicals in the reaction mechanism with a radical trap.

Monitoring Bipolar Electrochemistry and Hydrogen Evolution Reaction of a Single Gold Microparticle under Sub-Micropipette Confinement.

Herein, an approach to track the process of autorepeating bipolar reactions and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) on a micro gold bipolar electrode (BPE) is established. Once blocking the channel of the sub-micropipette tip, the formed gold microparticle is polarized into the wireless BPE, which induces the dissolution of the gold at the anode and the HER at the cathode. The current response shows a periodic behavior with three regions: the bubble generation region (I), the bubble rupture/generation region (II), and the channel opening region (III). After a stable low baseline current of region I, a series of positive spike signals caused by single H2 nanobubbles rupture/generation are recorded standing for the beginning of region II. Meanwhile, the dissolution of the gold blocking at the orifice will create a new channel, increasing the baseline current for region III, where the synthesis of gold occurs again, resulting in another periodic response. Finite element simulations are applied to unveil the mechanism thermodynamically. In addition, the integral charge of the H2 nanobubbles in region II corresponds to the consumption of the anode gold. It simultaneously monitors autorepeating bipolar reactions of a single gold microparticle and HER of a single H2 nanobubble electrochemically, which reveals an insightful physicochemical mechanism in nanoscale confinement and makes the glass nanopore an ideal candidate to further reveal the heterogeneity of catalytic capability at the single particle level.

Electrochemical behavior of gold, palladium and platinum as inert anode materials for molten chloride electrolysis

Electrochemical behavior of gold, palladium and platinum as anode materials was studied in a molten chloride media CaCl2 – CaO (0–2 wt%) at 850 °C in order to determine the feasibility of their use as oxygen evolving anodes for electro-deoxidation processes such as the Fray-Farthing-Chen (FFC) Cambridge and Ono and Suzuki (OS) processes. Linear sweep voltammetry measurements and constant current electrolyses were conducted in line with oxygen analysis and mass variation measurements to identify anodic reactions that can occur. It was found that oxygen evolution is possible on gold anode but the metal also undergoes a degradation due to gold chloride AuClx formation. Palladium has to form an oxide layer on its surface to evolve oxygen but is also damaged by PdClx formation. Platinum is the most interesting metal as O2 gas can be produced without damaging the material with a good control of electrolysis conditions such as current density and CaO concentration.

Kinetics and mechanism of gold anode corrosion in a weakly basic aqueous solution of triethylenetetramine

Kinetics and mechanism of gold anode corrosion in a weakly basic aqueous solution of triethylenetetramine

Kinetics and mechanism of gold anode corrosion in a weakly basic aqueous solution of hexamethylenetetramine (urotropine)

Kinetics and mechanism of gold anode corrosion in a weakly basic aqueous solution of hexamethylenetetramine (urotropine)

Electrocatalytic Oxidation of Carbohydrates via Surface-Immobilized Viologen

Electricity produced directly from renewable carbohydrates—Earth’s most abundant biomolecules—offers tremendous potential if it can be done cheaply, efficiently, and practically. Previous work demonstrated that the viologen-mediated process accelerates carbohydrate oxidation but also results in incomplete oxidation products reducing the efficiency of electricity production. Subsequent studies suggested that soluble polymeric viologen compounds improved oxidation efficiency by increasing the local concentration of the viologen mediators. In the present study, the utility of surface-immobilized viologen mediators for the oxidation of simple carbohydrates was investigated. Self-assembled monolayers of thiolated viologen derivatives were prepared on gold anodes to enhance the electrocatalytic oxidation of dihydroxyacetone, fructose, and glucose. The thiolated viologen mediators formed surface-adsorbed films on gold electrodes that were consistent with incomplete monolayers, as characterized by quartz crystal microbalance and cyclic voltammetry. Monolayers formed from dialkylated viologens enhanced the spontaneous electrooxidation of carbohydrates in an unoptimized alkaline electrochemical cell. These results indicate that immobilized mediators can be used to enhance the spontaneous oxidation of carbohydrates to generate electricity from renewable sources. The same tethered-mediator strategy could be used for other mediators to increase the electrochemical cell efficiency and enable long-lasting anodes in carbohydrate fuel cells.

Gold anode corrosion in an aqueous solution of 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-diaminopropane

The kinetics and mechanism of corrosion of an Au anode in a weakly basic aqueous solution of 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-diaminopropane (2,2-DM-1,3-DAP) were studied by gravimetry and cyclic voltammetry. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy was used to determine that under galvanostatic conditions the products of anode corrosion are reduced on a steel cathode with the formation of not only an electrolytic Au deposition on the cathode, but also colloidal gold nanoparticles in the electrolyte medium. The product of the interaction of 2,2-DM-1,3-DAP with atmospheric CO2, namely, the carbamic acid internal salt 3-ammonio-2,2-dimethyl-propylcarbamate, was isolated from the reaction solution.

Point Defect Model Description of the Formation of Anodic Gold Oxide in H2SO4 Solution

An impedance-based Point Defect Model (PDM) was developed for the potentiostatic, anodic formation of gold oxide at potentials of 1.40–1.70 V vs SHE in H2SO4 (0.1 M and 0.5 M). Film thickness and refractive indices were determined at each oxide formation potential using spectroscopic ellipsometry. The thickness of the oxide increases linearly with increasing potential. Mott-Schottky analysis shows that the oxide exhibits both n-type and p-type character and the dominant defect density is calculated to be in the order of 1021−1022 (1 cm−3). The PDM was optimized upon experimental EIS data to extract values for model parameters and accounts well for the experimental observations in both the steady-state time and frequency domains.

Electrochemical dissolution behavior of gold and its main coexistent sulfide minerals in acid thiocyanate solutions

Electrochemical tests were developed to investigate the electrochemical dissolution behavior of gold and its main coexistent sulfide minerals in acid thiocyanate solutions. The optimal leaching conditions for gold in acidic thiocyanate system were pH 2, 0.15 mol·L−1 thiocyanate and 0.2 g·L−1 Fe3+. Fe3+ addition to the acidic thiocyanate system promoted gold dissolution significantly, arsenopyrite dissolution was inhibited, chalcopyrite dissolution was increased, and the dissolution behavior of other associated minerals remained mostly unchanged. Thiocyanate made gold and associated mineral leaching easier. The galvanic corrosion effect of gold and its main coexistent sulfide minerals in an acidic thiocyanate-free system was that the chalcocite, arsenopyrite and pyrite acted as a cathode to reduce anodic gold dissolution; galena as an anode undergoes oxidation to inhibit anodic gold dissolution. There was almost no galvanic corrosion behavior between stibnite, yellow sphalerite and black sphalerite and gold. Thiocyanate addition changed the galvanic corrosion behavior of stibnite and yellow sphalerite in the thiocyanate system, which inhibited anodic gold dissolution. In the acidic thiocyanate system in the presence of ferric iron, the arsenopyrite promoted anodic gold dissolution, the chalcocite and gold were mostly free of galvanic corrosion, and the remaining minerals inhibited anodic gold dissolution.

Gold anode corrosion in aqueous solution of 1,2-diaminopropane with formation of colloidal gold nanoparticles

Gold anode corrosion in aqueous solution of 1,2-diaminopropane with formation of colloidal gold nanoparticles

Enhancement of the Start-Up Time for Microliter-Scale Microbial Fuel Cells (µMFCs) via the Surface Modification of Gold Electrodes.

Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) are biological fuel cells based on the oxidation of fuels by electrogenic bacteria to generate an electric current in electrochemical cells. There are several methods that can be employed to improve their performance. In this study, the effects of gold surface modification with different thiol molecules were investigated for their implementation as anode electrodes in micro-scale MFCs (µMFCs). Several double-chamber µMFCs with 10.4 µL anode and cathode chambers were fabricated using silicon-microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) fabrication technology. µMFC systems assembled with modified gold anodes were operated under anaerobic conditions with the continuous feeding of anolyte and catholyte to compare the effect of different thiol molecules on the biofilm formation of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1. Performances were evaluated using polarization curves, Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), and Scanning Electron Microcopy (SEM). The results showed that µMFCs modified with thiol self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) (cysteamine and 11-MUA) resulted in more than a 50% reduction in start-up times due to better bacterial attachment on the anode surface. Both 11-MUA and cysteamine modifications resulted in dense biofilms, as observed in SEM images. The power output was found to be similar in cysteamine-modified and bare gold µMFCs. The power and current densities obtained in this study were comparable to those reported in similar studies in the literature.

Power generation and autonomous glucose detection with an integrated array of abiotic fuel cells on a printed circuit board

Wearable technologies can enable effective management of life-threatening diseases. In such systems, miniaturisation leads to minimally invasive and lightweight devices that, whilst ensuring safety, allow patients to perform their everyday activities freely. By generating direct and continuous energy from physiological fluids at body temperature, glucose fuel cells (GFCs) provide an attractive and easy-to-miniaturise power source alternative to lithium batteries. In this context, we explore for the first time the use of printed circuit boards (PCBs) for the development of integrated arrays of abiotic GFCs and successfully demonstrate their operation at physiological concentrations of glucose, both in a phosphate buffer and in synthetic interstitial fluid. Each GFC consists of a porous gold anode and a Pt/Au cathode in a single layer, and generates a maximum power of 14.3 μW cm−2 (in 6 mM of glucose), with a linear response to glucose within a concentration range that includes hypo- and hyper-glycaemic values. We also demonstrate linear power output scale-up by electrically connecting in parallel four GFCs on PCB. Considering the simplicity of the system architecture and the ease of integration provided by PCBs, our pioneering work paves the way for exciting opportunities in the field of self-powered wearable diagnostics.

A High-Power Non-Enzymatic Glucose Biofuel Cell Based on a Nano/Micro Hybrid-Structured Gold Anode

Biofuel cell (BFC) that has attracted considerable attentions recently is a green energy generator that can generate electricity directly from the oxidation of biological organic matter. Glucose biofuel cells (GBFCs) that uses glucose as fuel has emerging need due to the rapid growth of wearable or implantable medical devices. In general, enzyme based GBFCs that use enzymes as the catalyst are still the mainstream of current development due to the excellent selectivity and reaction rate of specific enzymes. However, the enzyme based GBFCs suffer from the disadvantages of prone to poisoning, limited enzyme stability and cumbersome enzyme immobilization procedures. Therefore, non-enzymatic technologies that use nanostructures of noble metals such platinum, gold, and silver as the catalyst has become a new development trend. In this study, a high-power non-enzymatic glucose biofuel cells based on a nano/micro hybrid-structured gold anode is proposed. In this novel electrode, a uniformly distributed micro hemisphere array of polycarbonate was fabricated by hot embossing. Then a self-assembled monolayer of gold nanoparticle was formed on the micro hemisphere array as the anode. The cathode was composed of a graphene film coated glassy carbon electrode. The anode and cathode are separated by a proton exchange membrane (nafion) to complete the battery assembly. Experimental results demonstrated that the proposed non-enzymatic GBFC has a high power density of 9.459 mWcm-2, a high current density of 8 mAcm-2, and an open circuit voltage (Voc) of 0.7128 V at room temperature. In addition, the proposed GBFC can be easily produced on a large scale, the cost of fabrication is low, repeatability is high, and is easy to preserve on a long-term basis. Therefore, it is highly feasible to be commercialized and used in practical applications. Figure 1

Development of a portable grazing exit X-ray fluorescence system using a gold anode X-ray tube

A portable grazing exit X-ray fluorescence system (GE-XRF) composed of a low power X-ray tube (gold anode), a SiPIN detector, quartz reflector and an XY table plus rotary stage for positioning the reflector in grazing exit condition was developed in this work. The accuracy of the system was checked using a certified bovine liver sample (SRM 1577b, NIST). The relative errors between measured and certified values ranged from 2 to 22%, except P (39%) and S (26%). The absolute detection limits obtained with the portable system were in the range of 4–300 ng (15 ≤ Z ≤ 30). The portable GE-XRF system developed does not favor the detection of light elements since absorption effects were more critical (sample-to-detector distance ∼ 35 mm). Besides that, it was operated under room temperature and atmospheric pressure, 20 °C and 1.0 atm, respectively. The quantitative results of a multielement reference sample were compared with the results of a GI-XRF system. Both techniques were compatible and presented good accuracy with reference values. The portable GE-XRF system developed in this work was efficient, showing that it is possible to produce a grazing exit X-ray fluorescence system using a low power X-ray tube, a Si-PIN detector and quartz reflector.

Features affecting the cupric chloride leaching of gold

The current study investigated gold dissolution in cupric chloride solution, which is one of the most promising alternatives to replace cyanide, although not yet in operation on industrial scale. In this paper, the gold dissolution reaction rate and mechanism were studied by varying the process variables of temperature (28–95 °C), cupric concentration (0.02–1.0 M), chloride concentration (1–5 M), rotational speed (100–2500 RPM), and pH (0.5–2.0). The parameters affecting either the anodic or cathodic reaction, or both, were identified for the first time to the best of the authors’ knowledge in this wide range and with these parameter intervals. Tafel and linear polarization methods as well as cyclic voltammetry were used for pure gold with both rotating disk and stationary gold electrodes. An increase in the gold dissolution rate was observed with an increase in temperature, chloride concentration, and rotational speed. Additionally, an increase in cupric concentration ([Cu2+] = 0.02–0.75 M) promoted the gold dissolution rate, whereas the gold dissolution rate decreased with [Cu2+] from 0.75 to 1.0 M. The conditions for maximizing the gold dissolution rate in cupric chloride solution were concluded to be T > 55 °C, [Cu2+] = 0.5–0.75 M, [Cl−] = 5 M, and pH = 1.0 and the highest gold dissolution rate (2.9 · 10−4 mol m−2 s−1) was achieved at 95 °C with [Cu2+] = 0.5 M, [Cl−] = 5 M, pH = 1.0, and ωcyc = 2500 RPM. The pH was shown not to affect the gold dissolution rate at all, but only to affect the solubility of the oxidant. It was suggested that gold dissolved as aurous species in the conditions of this study, although the increase in chloride concentration promoted the dissolution of gold as both, auric and aurous, species.The reaction mechanism was interpreted using mixed potential theory. An increase in temperature was shown to promote only the cathodic reduction of cupric ion to cuprous at lower temperatures (28–55 °C); however, both the anodic gold dissolution reaction and cathodic cupric reduction reaction were enhanced at higher temperatures (65–95 °C). The cathodic reaction was also enhanced with an increase in cupric concentration (0.02–0.5 M), whereas the anodic reaction was promoted when the cupric concentration was increased from 0.5 to 0.75 M. When the cupric concentration was increased from 0.75 to 1.0 M, the cathodic reaction rate decreased. However, the reason for the decrease in the cathodic reaction rate was not clear. An increase in chloride concentration enhanced the cathodic reaction in the investigated range (1–5 M), whereas an increase in rotational speed (i.e., improved mass transfer) increased the anodic gold dissolution rate, specifically at low rotational speeds.

Nanostructured Porous Electrodes by the Anodization of Gold for an Application as Scaffolds in Direct-electron-transfer-type Bioelectrocatalysis.

In this study, nanostructured porous gold electrodes were prepared by the anodization of gold in the presence of oxalic acid or glucose as a reductant, and applied as scaffolds for direct electron transfer (DET)-type bioelectrocatalysis. Gold cations generated in the anodization seem to be reduced by the reductant to construct a porous gold structure. The DET-type performance of the electrode was examined using two DET-type model enzymes, bilirubin oxidase (BOD) and peroxidase (POD), for the four-electron reduction of dioxygen and the two-electron reduction of peroxide, respectively. BOD and POD on the anodized porous gold electrodes exhibited well-defined sigmoidal steady-state waves corresponding to DET-type bioelectrocatalysis. Scanning electron microscopy images revealed sponge-like pores on the electrodes. The anodized porous gold electrodes demonstrate promise as scaffolds for DET-type bioelectrocatalysis.

Electrodeposition to Form Nanoporous Gold at Microdisc Electrode Arrays for Electrochemical Sensing Applications

In this work we report on the controlled electrodeposition of gold-silver alloys at microdisc arrays to form nanoporous gold (NPG) upon silver removal. NPG is characterised by a sponge-like 3D network composed of interconnecting nanopores and nanoligaments. It is also chemically inert, corrosion resistant and biocompatible. These characteristics make NPG an attractive electrochemical platform for many applications such as electrocatalysis[1, 2] and biosensing[3]. We will show that simulated and corresponding experimental measurements for electrodes based on the microdisc array offer the potential for signal amplification arising from individual radial diffusion occurring at each microdisc. Through further post-processing of the microdisc array we will describe an electroless deposition process for conformal nanoscale active materials deposition to enhance analysis for specific analytes such as for phosphate detection. Nagle, L.C. and J.F. Rohan, Nanoporous gold anode catalyst for direct borohydride fuel cell. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2011. 36(16): p. 10319-10326. Nagle, L.C. and J.F. Rohan, Nanoporous Gold Catalyst for Direct Ammonia Borane Fuel Cells. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2011. 158(7): p. B772-B778. Galvin, P., et al., Nanoenabling electrochemical sensors for life sciences applications. Journal of Materials Research, 2017. 32(15): p. 2883-2904.

Electrochemical Activity of Non-Noble Metal Alloy as Catalyst Towards Oxidation of Glycerol in Acidic Media: A Case for the Conceptual Glycerol/Ferric Redox Flow Battery

Electro-catalytic oxidation of polyols is a very important path towards the production of high value chemicals. The electro-oxidation of glycerol using precious metals such as Au and Pt has been studied and known to be a source of several end products and has also been utilized in the concept of direct glycerol fuel cells to produce electrical energy additionally [1]. Herein an electro-catalyst comprising a non-noble metal alloy composition, namely nickel, copper and tin on carbon support have been fabricated using the electroless deposition method. The electrochemical activity of the prepared catalysts towards the glycerol oxidation reaction in acidic medium have then been evaluated using physical characterization, electrochemical and chromatographic methods. In the current study, the concept is applied to experimentally demonstrate the working principles of a glycerol-fed redox flow battery using an aqueous solution of a Fe2+/Fe3+ couple as cathode [2]. Constant potential electrolysis coupled with high performance liquid chromatography were used to identify the various compounds generated as a result of the electro-catalytic conversion of glycerol. References Li W., Xin L., Zhang Z., Wang Z. (2012) Simultaneous Generation of Mesoxalic Acid and Electricity from Glycerol on a Gold Anode Catalyst in Anion-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells ChemCatChem Vol 4 1105-1114J, Kalu E. and Yeboah Y. (2017) A Group Additivity based-thermodynamic analysis of a conceptual glycerol/ferric redox flow battery ECS Transactions, 77 (11) 2005-2010