Village Goats Research Articles

IMPLEMENTASI PEMANTAUAN SUHU, KELEMBABAN DAN KADAR GAS AMONIA BERBASIS ANDROID PADA PETERNAKAN KAMBING SAPERA MITRA AGRO ABADI FARM

The partner of this program is a dairy goat breeder Mitra Agro Abadi Farm which is located in Barukan Village, Semarang Regency. The fundamental problem of dairy goat farmers in Barukan Village is related to continuous real time monitoring of temperature, humidity and ammonia gas levels in goat cages. Breeders still use the manual method by estimating changes in temperature and humidity and changes in ammonia gas making the goat cage susceptible to disease in goats so that it affects the production of goat milk produced. Therefore, the PKM team offers a solution to create a system that can monitor temperature, humidity and ammonia gas levels in an Android-based goat pen that can be monitored via the farmer's cellphone, then the monitoring data is sent via the internet and then provides notifications to farmers remotely in real time. via mobile phones so that farmers can provide immediate handling or action if the cage conditions are not in accordance with ideal conditions. The goal to be achieved from this activity is that the Barukan Village goat breeders are IT literate and it is easier to control the condition of the goat cages in a measurable manner. Thus, the quality of goat's milk production also increases

Differential gene expression and identification of growth-related genes in the pituitary gland of South African goats

Growth and carcass quality are economically important traits in goat production. This study investigated differentially expressed genes from the caprine pituitary gland transcriptome of South African indigenous goat breeds of varying growth performances and carcass quality parameters. Tissues were harvested from the pituitary gland of three South African Boer goats and three village ecotype goats all raised under similar conditions simulating intensive commercial production systems. Three additional tissues were harvested from village ecotype goats that were raised extensively on village farms. Between breed differences were investigated by comparing differential gene expression among three South African Boer and three village goats that were both raised under intensive commercial production system at a research farm. Within-breed differences were investigated by comparing differential gene expression among three village goats raised under extensive conditions (on-farm in Pella, S.A. village farming community) and three village goats raised under intensive commercial production system (at ARC research farm in Pretoria, South Africa. Total RNA was isolated from the pituitary gland of 36-week-old animals (n = 9) and sequenced individually in triplicates. An average of 28,298,512 trimmed, and quality-controlled reads/animal were mapped to the goat genome (Capra_hircus.ARS1.94) using HiSat2 software. Transcript assembly and quantification yielded 104 differentially expressed genes for village goats raised under extensive system and 62 for village goats raised under the intensive production system at the false discovery rate (FRD) of ≤0.05 and a fold change of ≥2. Growth-related genes such as POU3F4 and TSHZ1 were highly expressed within breeds raised under both production systems. Conversely, growth-related genes such as FGFR2 and SMPX genes were highly expressed between breeds raised under similar production systems. Ballgown analysis revealed a high expression of GH1 and IGF1 in the intensively raised compared to extensively raised goats. Both genes were also highly expressed in the village goats when compared to the Boer. The differential gene expression data provided insights into genes and molecular mechanisms associated with growth and growth development in goats.

Carcass Quality Profiles and Associated Genomic Regions of South African Goat Populations Investigated Using Goat SNP50K Genotypes.

Simple SummarySouth Africa is one of the major goat producing countries on the African continent. However, despite a large number of goats being produced, there is still a growing demand for chevon, which leads to producers being unable to reach demand, resulting in an absence of chevon in retail markets. Carcass quality is an important economic trait that plays a major role in influencing consumer preferences and high nutrient provision. Even though chevon is an easily accessible meat for smallholder farmers and has health benefits, it is still less preferred due to perceptions of low meat quality attributes such as toughness, off-odours and flavour, and unappealing colour. The majority of goat populations are village ecotypes whose genetic potential for meat and carcass quality is unknown.Carcass quality includes a battery of essential economic meat traits that play a significant role in influencing farmer breed preferences. A preliminary study was undertaken to investigate the carcass quality and the associated genomic regions in a small nucleus of animals that are representative of South African goat genetic resources. Samples of the South African Boer (n = 14), Northern Cape Speckled (n = 14), Eastern Cape Xhosa Lob ear (n = 12), Nguni/Mbuzi (n = 13), and Village (n = 20) were genotyped using the Illumina goat SNP50K and were phenotyped for carcass quality traits. SA Boer goats had heavier warm and cold carcass weights (17.2 ± 2.3 kg and 16.3 ± 2.3 kg). Pella village goats raised under an intensive system had significantly (p < 0.05) heavier warm and cold carcass weights (9.9 ± 1.1 kg and 9.2 ± 1.2 kg) compared to the village goats that are raised extensively (9.1 ± 2.0 kg and 8.4 ± 1.9). A total of 40 SNPs located on chromosomes 6, 10, 12, 13, 19, and 21 were significantly associated with carcass traits at (−log10 [p < 0.05]). Candidate genes that were associated with carcass characteristics (GADD45G, IGF2R, GAS1, VAV3, CAPN8, CAPN7, CAPN2, GHSR, COLQ, MRAS, and POU1F1) were also observed. Results from this study will inform larger future studies that will ultimately find use in breed improvement programs.

English

Breeding practices and trait preferences are key to defining sound breeding objectives and designing genetic improvement programs at community level. The current study identifies these factors for village goats within a pilot community-based breeding program in Pella village, North West province, South Africa. Thirty-five farmers were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaire survey to characterize goat farmers’ production system. Breeding objectives were identified in 26 households using own flock ranking experiment and the body weight (kg) and linear measurements (cm) were collected for 10 best does and bucks. Majority of famers were males (83%) and literate (85.7%). Fifteen (43%) farmers owned a buck, and those that did not, relied on communal bucks. Average flock per household was 21±19. Farmer selling price for does was R1588.68±313.17 and bucks were sold for R1663.89±861.91. Body size traits were ranked high for both bucks (0.22) and does (0.10), followed by growth rate of 0.10 does and 0.08 for bucks. Average live body weight for all goats was 38±12 kg. Except for rump length, all linear body measurements studied were significantly correlated with body weight (p<0.0001) with chest girth having the highest correlation coefficient (r = 0.70). Breeding objectives and trait preferences established in this study provide primary data required to design a sustainable breeding program and must be incorporated into selection decisions to address farmer preferences. Key words: Breeding objectives, selection criteria, ranking, goat improvement, trait preference.

ON-FARM ESTABLISHMENT AND PRODUCTIVITY OF GMELINA AND GLIRICIDIA AS BROWSE FOR GOATS

The on-farm establishment and productivity of Gmelina arborea and Gliricidia sepium were studied with seven farmers in two Local when planted as feed gardens. These studies Government Areas of Ogun State. Gmelina seedlings and Gliricidia stakes were planted in Gliricidia) plots located at distances of 15 to 50m to the farmer's homestead and protected from straying animals with local fencing materials like bamboo and palm branches. Core soil samples were taken randomly within each plot chemical analysis. The growth and yield of browse plants were determined at 3 and 12 months after planting. The palatability and the use of the browse as supplement to cassava peel were also determined. The organic matter soil was fairly high with organic carbon of 1.1 to 13%. Leaves of Gmelina and Gliricidia had high contents of nitrogen with crude protein values of 16 to 26%. The leaves were also high in mineral content. The dry matter yield of the primary growth ranged from browse for goat feeding. 3 to 5 t-ha while leaf dry matter yield ranged from 0.4 to 1.4 t-ha. Goats relished Gmeling more than Gliricidia with daily dry matter intakes of 638 and 453g respectively when offered as sole feed. It is concluded that Gmelina and Gliricidia produce good quality protein feed for village goats when they are managed as shrubs in a feed garden.

Effect of cervical insemination with frozen semen on fertility of Indian goat breed

Artificial Insemination (AI) has great potential to multiply superior quality of goat with faster rate in spite of lower conception rate. This technique will spread elite genetic material throughout a population and is also important for breed conservation and has paved the way for other reproductive biotechnologies. Ejaculates from bucks aged between 2–4 years old from Jamunapari, Barbari, Sirohi and Jakhrana were collected using artificial vagina, twice a week. Immediately after collection, the volume, colour, consistency, and mass motility of ejaculate were assessed and were extended with Tris -Egg yolk- Fructose diluent having 10% (v/v) egg yolk and glycerol 6% (v/v). Sperm concentrations were adjusted to 1×108/ml and diluted semen was equilibrated at 5°C for 4 h before being frozen. The post thaw motility in Jamunapari and Barbari was significantly higher then Jakhrana and Sirohi. In two major breeding seasons (May–June and October–November), 181 goats of different breeds (Barbari, Jakhrana, Jamunapari and Sirohi) including 35 goats in villages were intra-cervical inseminated with frozen semen in natural estrous condition. The kidding percentage in Barbari, Jamunapari, Jakhrana and Sirohi were 53.12±2.40%, 34.61±1.96%, 26.53±2.12% and 28.57±2.32% respectively. Overall, a success rate of 37.57% was recorded on the basis of actual kidding rate irrespective of goat breed maintained at this institute under semi-intensive management system. The best post thaw quality of buck semen and comparative deeper cervical insemination in Barbari and Jamunapri breeds results in higher conception and kidding percent compared to other breeds (Sirohi and Jakhrana).

Relationship between population genomic structure and growth profiles of South African goats under different production systems.

Goats play a major role in poor marginalized communities of South Africa for food security and socio-economic purposes. Majority of the goats are raised in villages with poor infrastructure and resources, therefore facing challenges that affect growth performance which leads to low mature weights. Investigating growth profiles will shed light on growth performances and will aid in goat improvement and selection. This study investigated the growth profiles and genomic structure of SA indigenous breeds raised in different production systems to unravel the genetic potential of indigenous goat populations. Live weights and morphological body measurements were collected from a total of 83 kids representing the commercial meat-producing SA Boer (n = 14); the indigenous veld goats (IVG) of NC Skilder (n = 14), Mbuzi (n = 13), and Xhosa lob (n = 14) raised under intensive systems; and nondescript village goat populations (n = 14) raised in intensive and others (n = 14) raised in extensive production systems. The remaining 72 of 83 phenotyped goats were genotyped using the Illumina Caprine SNP50K BeadChip. The SA Boer had a higher weight (28.96 ± 0.30 kg) gain as compared to other populations. The Mbuzi population was the smallest (14.83 ± 0.33 kg), while the village goats raised in Pella Village were relatively smaller (17.55 ± 0.37 kg) than those raised on the research farm (19.55 ± 0.36 kg). The study concluded that both genetics and management systems can lead to improved growth performance in goat production. The outputs of this study can be used to identify suitable breeds and potential genotypes for optimal growth and establish optimal goat management systems suitable for communal farmers for improved productivity.

Kronotop Kontra Politik dan Visualitas Korban dalam Film Dokumenter: Kajian Antropologi Media

This article is my retrospective account on the making of one of my testimonial documentaries, “Kameng Gampoeng Nyang Keunong Geulawa” (The Village Goat that Takes the Beating, 1999) which was commissioned by a human rights-defender NGO based in Jakarta. The aim was to offer critical views on the Aceh conflict to the Indonesian public. By using chronotopes (Bakhtin, 1981) as the analytical tool, I delineate the way the Indonesian state and its military constituted a dominant view of Aceh as the Other by applying a semiotic model of authoritarian nationalism that circulated in the public sphere. As the counter-politics, I developed particular testimony chronotopes as a strategy to capture victims’ points of view as embodied experience. In my reflection, I argue that instead of producing a complex visuality of the Aceh actors as human beings, my portrayal of the victims had taken on a sustained oppressor-victim binary opposition view which framed victims as the articulation of singular experience. This study contributes to the emerging interest in media anthropology and the study of non-mainstream film genres and independent cinema works.

Goat Production in Bharatpur, Rajasthan- Status and Strategy for Development

Present study was conducted in 15 villages of Bharatpur district of Rajasthan, India, purposively due to Jamunapari bucks were provided to farmers for breed improvement. Data were collected randomly from 41 goat farmers in semi-structured interview schedule. Most of respondents (90.2%) were women and majority of them were illiterate (61%), belong to OBC category (68.3%) and having marginal land holding (56.1%). Small ruminant rearing was the major livestock activity. The male to female ratio was observed to be 1.5:1.0 to 0.3:1.0 in different breeds. Overall mortality in goats in villages was found to be 22.8 per cent. The gap between awareness and adoption of all scientific practices was very low (0 to 5.7%). There is a need to create awareness by using mass media, explore the possibility of using alternate materials in housing and feeding to reduce the input cost, more focus on support service like Veterinary service, Credit service, Transportation, Marketing and Extension services.

Strategy Analysis Of SMEs Business Development (Case Study On Junggo Village Goat Goat Subdistrict Prigen, Pasuruan, East Java Province, Indonesia)

The purpose of this study was to identify internal and external factors of SMEs of Junggo Village Goat, to analyze the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats faced by Junggo Goat Village SMEs, to formulate a business development strategy that should be done of SMEs of Goat Village Junggo . This research uses participatory action research (PAR) approach to data collection and processing. The data obtained in the form of primary data and secondary data. Based on the results of SWOT matrix analysis, there are several alternative strategies such as increasing the number of permanent customers, increasing sales capacity, increasing production capacity, promoting, performing financial and administration recording system, conducting market research and development, providing quality goats, increasing synergism and partnership, provide supplementary food and preventive medicine and conduct comparative studies.

Characterization of the village goat production systems in the rural communities of the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo and North West Provinces of South Africa.

Expansion of goat improvement programs requires exploration of the factors that influence the production system and breeding initiatives. Characterization of goat breeds or populations is crucial in providing information on prevalent goat types and their attributes and may suffice as a guideline on conservation, development, and selection for improved productivity. This study investigated the existing village goat production system and phenotypic diversity of the different village populations from four South African provinces. The study further investigated the use of phenotypic attributes to classify goats to breeds or populations. Data was collected from 142 households in 26 villages of the Eastern Cape (n = 2 villages), KwaZulu-Natal (n = 6 villages), Limpopo (n = 13 villages), and North West (n = 5 villages) provinces through a survey. Individual interviews and focus group discussions revealed that the mean goat herd size per household was least in Limpopo at 13.2 ± 12.40 and highest in Eastern Cape (34.18 ± 28.36). Flocks had more (p < 0.05) adults than kids, and the distribution of breeding animals was biased towards does and less bucks. Goats were kept mainly for meat, for selling, and for ritual ceremonies. The goat production system was mainly scavenging. Goat health was a major challenge across households and villages. Qualitative traits such coat, horn, ears, and wattle characteristics were recorded for populations of village goats (n = 319) and a feral Tankwa breed (n = 50). The dominant coat pattern was plain (74.53%) with black as the most common coat color (31.98%). Across breeds, a majority (88.08%) of the goats had horns, and 7.59% had wattles while 56.64% had beard. Adult goats (<3years; n = 398) were further analyzed for five quantitative traits of chest girth, height, length, and pin bone and there were significant (p < 0.05) breed differences in all. A stepwise discriminatory procedure was used to rank the quantitative traits according to their discriminatory power to separate breeds or populations. Significant traits were then subjected to canonical discriminant analysis for principle component analysis. Based on the quantitative traits, the Tankwa, Xhosa, and Tswana goats formed their own cluster separated from commercial meat type breeds and the Venda and Zulu ecotypes. The discriminant function analysis correctly classified 90.41% of the Zulu goats and 82.93% of the Xhosa village populations. None of the Savanna goats were correctly classified. The study demonstrated diversity in village goat populations and production systems, which would allow for within population selection in genetic improvement programs. The heterogeneity in the phenotypic traits in the village goats is reflective of the role of village production systems in the maintenance of animal diversity in local populations.

Medicinal plants used to control internal and external parasites in goats.

The use of medicinal plants plays a major role in the primary health care of animals in South Africa. A survey was conducted to document medicinal plants used to control parasites in goats in Kwezi and Ntambethemba villages in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Information from 50 farmers and 3 herbalists was obtained through the use of a structured questionnaire, and a snowball sampling technique was used to identify key informants. The obtained data were analysed using PROC FREQ of SAS (2003), and fidelity level values were determined to estimate the healing potential of the mentioned plants. The survey revealed nine plant species belonging to eight families that were used to control parasites in goats. Asphodelaceae (22.22%) was the most frequently used plant family. Leaves were the most used plant parts, constituting 60.38%. They were prepared either as infusions or decoctions of single plants or in mixtures. Aloe ferox, Acokanthera oppositifolia and Elephantorrhiza elephantina were the plants having the highest fidelity level for their use to control parasites, each scoring 100%, followed by Albuca setosa (83.33%). The study revealed low knowledge about ethno-veterinary medicine in the study area. It also revealed that information on ethno-veterinary medicine in this area is mostly confined to older people and there is danger that this knowledge can be lost before being passed on to other generations. Therefore, there is an urgent need to document information on these plant species so that the future generation can benefit. Further investigation should be carried out to validate the efficacy and safety of the above-mentioned plants so as to provide cheap alternative ways of controlling parasites.

Targeted high-throughput growth hormone 1 gene sequencing reveals high within-breed genetic diversity in South African goats.

This study assessed the genetic diversity in the growth hormone 1 gene (GH1) within and between South African goat breeds. Polymerase chain reaction-targeted gene amplification together with Illumina MiSeq next-generation sequencing (NGS) was used to generate the full length (2.54kb) of the growth hormone 1 gene and screen for SNPs in the South African Boer (SAB) (n=17), Tankwa (n=15) and South African village (n=35) goat populations. A range of 27-58 SNPs per population were observed. Mutations resulting in amino acid changes were observed at exons 2 and 5. Higher within-breed diversity of 97.37% was observed within the population category consisting of SA village ecotypes and the Tankwa goats. Highest pairwise FST values ranging from 0.148 to 0.356 were observed between the SAB and both the South African village and Tankwa feral goat populations. Phylogenetic analysis indicated nine genetic clusters, which reflected close relationships between the South African populations and the other international breeds with the exception of the Italian Sarda breeds. Results imply greater potential for within-population selection programs, particularly with SA village goats.

“The goat that died for family”: Animal sacrifice and interspecies kinship in India's Central Himalayas

ABSTRACTAnimal sacrifice can be productively theorized as a practice of kindred intimacy between human and nonhuman animal. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork in India's Central Himalayas, I trace how the ritual sacrifice of goats in the region's mountain villages acquires power and meaning through its anchoring in a realm of interspecies kinship. This kinship between humans and animals is created and sustained through everyday practices of intercorporeal engagement and care. I contend, in fact, that animal sacrifice is itself constitutive of interspecies kin relations. The spectacular act of violence at the heart of sacrifice—the beheading of the sacrificial animal—is crucial to the constitution of kin solidarity between human sacrificer and animal victim. From this perspective, animal sacrifice creates a world rich with the possibility of mutual response and recognition between different beings entangled in intimate and complex ways. [sacrifice, human–animal, interspecies kinship, South Asia, relations of care, religion, Himalayas]

The prevalence of antibodies to &lt;i&gt;Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus&lt;/i&gt; (PPRV) in goats from rural and urban communities in Ibadan,Nigeria

Serological surveys studies on Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) infection had been on village goats with less emphasis on urban goats which are faced with high risk of the spread of the disease. With the dynamic changes associated with a disease process and the myriad of factors that enhances the spread of the disease, the need to know the present status of the disease in village and urban goats in the southwestern Nigeria where the West African dwarf (WAD) goat are located is expedient. 340 goats of different ages from selected urban and rural communities in Oyo state were screened using an indirect ELISA technique. The overall prevalence of PPRV antibodies was 63.5% with a higher rate (69.0%) in the rural goats (p

Variation in the functions of village goats in Zimbabwe and South Africa

The objective of the study was to compare the functions and management systems of goats in Chirumanzu district in Zimbabwe and, Alfred Nzo and Amatole districts in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Data were collected using participatory rural appraisal techniques and direct observations. In addition, structured questionnaires from 344 households as follows; 69 from Alfred Nzo district, 144 from Amatole district and 132 from Chirumanzu district were also used to retrieve information from farmers. There were more female goat owners in male-headed households in Chirumanzu (75%) than in Amatole (27%) and Alfred Nzo (30%). Mean goat flock sizes per household were markedly high in Amatole (14.0 +/- 0.31) and Alfred Nzo (14.1 +/- 1.42) as compared to Chirumanzu (4.7 +/- 0.30). There were positive correlations (r = 0.30 for Amatole, r = 0.34 for Alfred Nzo and r = 0.25 for Chirumanzu; P < 0.05) between goat flock sizes and cattle herd sizes kept per household. Seventy-nine and 78% of households in Amatole and Alfred Nzo kept goats mainly for initiation ceremonies, respectively. Nearly all (95%) of the households in Chirumanzu reared goats for household consumption. Goat houses in all the districts were poorly constructed. Farmers' perceptions showed that most goat mortalities were mainly caused by gastrointestinal parasites and tick-borne diseases, especially heartwater. About 29, 15 and 27% of households in Alfred Nzo, Amatole and Chirumanzu, respectively, owned bucks. There were no formal markets for goats in the three districts. Chirumanzu had more females owning goats than the other two districts. No adolescents owned goats in all the three districts. Adolescent boys participated in the management of goats more than adolescent girls across the three districts. Differences in the importance of goats among countries and regions should be borne in mind when designing goat improvement and rural development programmes.

Communal goat production in Southern Africa: a review

Despite the fact that about 64% of goats in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are located in rural arid (38%) and semi-arid (26%) agro-ecological zones and that more than 90% of goats in these zones are indigenous, information on indigenous breeds is inadequate. This paper reviews the social and economic importance of goats to the communal farmer and assesses the potential of using goats in rural development in Southern Africa. Farmers in Southern Africa largely use the village goat management system. There are various goat breeds in Southern Africa, of which the Mashona, Matabele, Tswana, Nguni and the Landim are the dominant ones. It is, however, not clear if these breeds are distinct. Major constraints to goat production include high disease and parasite prevalence, low levels of management, limited forage availability and poor marketing management. Potential research areas that are required to ensure that goats are vehicles for rural development include evaluation of constraints to goat production, assessing the contribution of goats to household economies and food securities throughout the year, genetic and phenotypic characterisation of the indigenous breeds to identify appropriate strains and sustainable methods of goat improvement through either selection or crossbreeding.

Effects of fodder banks on growth and survival of West African Dwarf goats under village conditions in subhumid Nigeria

Thirty-two goat flocks belonging to 45 farmers and raised under village conditions in the Ganawuri area of the subhumid zone of Nigeria were monitored every 2 weeks for 30 months to determine productivity under village conditions. Records collected on kids included birth weight, birth type, body weight (BW), mortality and disposal information. In the wet season (August–October) goats were either tethered on natural pasture (NP) or were free-ranging on fodder banks (FB) of Stylosanthes spp. During the dry season, all animals were free-ranging on natural pasture (NP), forbs, crop residues or household wastes. Birth weight was affected ( P < 0.05) by year and season of birth, sex of kid and birth type. Both rate of gain and BW up to weaning (5 months) were affected ( P < 0.05) by year, parity and birth type. Animals on FB gained weight at a faster rate (33.8 vs. 28.9 g per day) between birth and 12 months of age and were consistently heaver than their counterparts on NP at all ages, but only the differences in BW at 3 months (5.1 vs. 4.6 kg) and 12 months (14.1 vs. 12.0 kg) of age were significant ( P < 0.01). Additionally, FB animals suffered less weight loss than NP animals during periods of limited feed availability. Overall mortality to 12 months of age was 14.5% and this represented 45% of animal disposals from these flocks. There was no difference in mortality between FB and NP flocks. Peak wet season was associated with the highest mortality and this was attributed mainly to increased parasite challenge during this period. Results of the study indicated potential contribution of FB for the improvement of growth performance of village goats in situations where, due to limited land, free-ranging is limited during the cropping season.

Prevalence of coccidial infections in the West African Dwarf goat in the subhumid zone of Nigeria.

An investigation was made of the seasonal incidence of coccidial infection in West African Dwarf (WAD) goats in 2 villages and an on-station situation in the subhumid zone of Nigeria. Faecal samples were obtained from about 70 goats in each village and 160 on-station at 4 times of the year, early and late dry and wet seasons. Six species of Eimeria were found to occur; E. arloingi, E. apsheronica, E. pallida, E. alijevi, E. jolchievi and E. ninakohlyakimovae which accounted for 18, 16, 22, 9, 24, and 11% of infections respectively. Overall rates of infection were very high, averaging approximately 87%, and peaked during the late wet season, when the proportion of heavy infections also increased significantly. At this time the proportion of heavy infections classified as heavy was significantly higher in the village goats than the on-station goats, and was also significantly higher in kids than in adults. Clinical disease only occurred in kids. The potential benefits of controlling such infections in terms of productivity responses appear worthy of further investigation in these farming systems.

Composition of village goat herds in southwest Nigeria

The majority of 22 free roaming goat herds in a 2-yr study in southwest Nigeria had no adult males. In a mean herd of seven to nine animals, 78% were female, and 43% were below 12 mo of age. Birth was the predominant reason for entry, accounting for 94% of new animals. Deaths (52%), ceremonial and festival slaughter (17%), and sales (15%) were the main reasons for exit. Less than 1 % of offtake was for direct home consumption, providing less than 0.5 kg of carcass per household/yr compared to 10 kg from cermonial and festival slaughter. The fastest growing young males were selectively sold first so that those remaining for breeding were the slower growing animals. Thus, farmers have chosen short-term production objectives that are detrimental to long-term productivity. Reduction of mortality rates, which would allow an increase in offtake, and hence increase the rate of return from goat production, should be the primary focus of continued research for smallholder producers in the humid zone.