Global Heritage Stone Resource Research Articles

The Transversal Heritage of Maastricht Stone, a Potential Global Heritage Stone Resource from Belgium and the Netherlands

The Transversal Heritage of Maastricht Stone, a Potential Global Heritage Stone Resource from Belgium and the Netherlands

Foundation stone of empire: The role of Portland stone in ‘heritage’, commemoration, and identity

AbstractIn 2013, Portland Stone, a creamy white limestone from the Isle of Portland in Dorset, was named the world’s first “Global Heritage Stone Resource” (GSHR) by the Heritage Stone Task Group, a sub‐commission of the International Union of Geological Sciences. The criteria for GSHR designation are ambiguous, with the Task Group championing Portland Stone’s “cultural value” and “heritage,” neither of which are critically interrogated. In this paper we undertake a detailed critical discourse analysis of Hansard entries mentioning Portland Stone between 1803 and 2020. We reveal that the use of Portland Stone is intertwined with colonial oppression, class subjugation, empire politics, structural racism, and a mythologised, England‐centric vision of British national identity. In celebrating the use of Portland Stone as part of Britain’s “heritage”, we are condoning a narrative of Britishness that is exclusionary and whitewashed, and that supports an elite rewriting of national and international history. Drawing on critical heritage literature, we argue that the Heritage Stone Task Group must urgently reconsider their uncritical appraisal of “heritage” and “culture” and consult with social science colleagues to ensure that all voices are heard. Our study shows that through the history and nature of their usage, the rocks beneath our feet, our natural foundation, can become imbued with notions of regional and national identity, belonging and exclusion, memory and loss – they can become a powerful manifestation of symbolic and unequal power structures. While British society’s attention is turned to the imprint of colonialism, empire, and race on our geographies, we urge further consideration of the built environment: the very stones that construct our towns and cities, the plinths on which statues are erected, tell stories of oppression and domination that are an important part of British history, culture, and heritage.

Charnockite: a candidate for ‘Global Heritage Stone Resource’ designation from India

Charnockite: a candidate for ‘Global Heritage Stone Resource’ designation from India

Red Ereño: an Ornamental and Construction Limestone of International Significance from the Basque Country (northern Spain)

Red Ereno is widely prized as an ornamental and construction stone for its intense red micritic matrix, contrasting with the white rudist fossil shells it contains. Quarried since Roman times (first century) in the localities of Ereno and Gautegiz Arteaga, Red Ereno is a recognised limestone and has been widely used in architecture ever since. It was utilised extensively in the Basque Country and is characteristic of the urban landscape of several of the region’s most important cities, including Bilbao and Gernika (Guernica). It has also been used in many monumental and other buildings throughout the Iberian Peninsula. Red Ereno limestone has also been exported to the Americas and Italy, the most significant example being its use in the flooring of St Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican. This paper summarises the main features of Red Ereno as a candidate for consideration as a Global Heritage Stone Resource (GHSR). This recognition will be important for future research and restoration works of existing heritage buildings.

Carnegie Institute Extension Connemara Marble: Cross-Atlantic Connections between Western Ireland and Gilded Age Architecture in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

The Connemara Marble of Ireland is a distinctive green decorative stone used in world architecture. These stones were imported and widely used in the Carnegie Institute Extension built in 1907 which is acknowledged as one of the America's finest Gilded Age Beaux-Arts structures. This report documents the use, quantities, and locations of Connemara Marble in the Carnegie Institute and through a review of historic primary source documents, secondary sources articles, on-site inspections, sampling, testing, and microscopic analysis has determined the stone's mineralogy and petrology, color types, and the specific location and identify of the actual quarry site and the lithostratigraphy from which these materials originated. In the 1970's the Carnegie Institute was listed in the National Register of Historic Places by the United States Department of the Interior and named a Historic Landmark by the Pittsburgh History Landmarks Foundation. In 2019, the Connemara Marble was proposed as a Global Heritage Stone Resource to the International Union of Geological Sciences. The Carnegie Institute incorporates 32 varieties of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks types from Algeria, Croatia, France, Greece, Italy, Ireland (i.e., the Connemara Marble), and the United States of America. The building's architects utilized four-color types of Connemara Marble in 13 prominent interior spaces of the building. The Connemara Marble formed from Precambrian Dalradian carbonates during the lower Ordovician Grampian orogeny, some 470 million years ago in western Ireland. Approximately, 366 square meters of floor tiles and wall inlays were fabricated out of some 60 metric tons of Connemara Marble blocks extracted from the Streamstown quarry near Clifden, County Galway.

Proterozoic Slates from Chamba and Kangra: a Heritage Stone Resource from Himachal Pradesh, India

The Heritage Stone Subcommission (HSS), under the aegis of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), accords “Global Heritage Stone Resource” status to stones used in architectural heritage sites that are particularly important for local cultures and traditions. The Proterozoic slates of Himachal Pradesh have been used extensively in the architectural heritage of the Himalayan region of India. The deposits, occurring in Himachal Pradesh’s Chamba, Kangra, Mandi, Kullu, Shimla, Sirmaur, Kinnuar, and Solan districts, have been quarried as a building material since the distant past for use in roofing, paving, fencing, and flooring. It can be found in prominent historic buildings such as the Shimla Town Hall Building, the Gaiety Theatre, and the Bandstand (Shimla); the Sarahan Palace and Bhimakali Temple (Sarahan); and the Pragpur heritage village and the temples of Champavati and Laxmi Narayan (Chamba), to name just a few. The crudely foliated varieties are employed locally as masonry in traditional Kath-Khuni architecture (cator-and-cribbage buildings using stone and local wood).

Research on some effective properties in nomination of Urfa Limestone to the “Global Heritage Stone Resource” designation

Extracted from Şanliurfa Province in Turkey, Urfa limestone is one of the limestone types that can be nominated to Global Heritage Stone Resource (GHSR). It has been used since the Neolithic Period (i.e., approximately 12,000 years ago) in world-renowned Gobekli Tepe Cultural Center in Urfa. In this study, a research has been conducted on the candidacy potential of Urfa limestone for Global Heritage Stone Resource (GHSR). Urfa limestone, which was used as a building block as of the Neolithic Period and in the first temple built in Anatolia, was also the building block of Gobekli Tepe. The use of Urfa limestone in Sogmatar Ancient City (second century AD), Şuayb City, Harran Ulu Mosque, Urfa Ulu Mosque (St. Stephan Church), Reji Church, sculptures, and Şanliurfa’s traditional city texture in houses, inns, castles, walls, gates, and bridge structures was investigated along with the use in Gobekli Tepe. The use of Urfa limestone in historical buildings and today’s buildings was investigated along with the use in Gobekli Tepe. The engineering characteristics of the building blocks in which Gobekli Tepe was built were examined. A series of engineering characterization tests and analyses were made on the building block samples regarding mineralogical and petrographic properties (polarize microscope, XRD, and SEM), and chemical (XRF), physico-mechanical, petrophysical, and insulation properties (TG and DTA analysis). Urfa limestone is in crystallized form and has a sparite texture containing 55.86% CaO and 0.36% SiO2. The Δ (change of characteristics in percentages) values in petrophysical characteristics were between 1.23 and 18.72%, and the Δ values after salt crystallization test were between 3.78 and 31.67%. According to this characteristics change (Δ%), it is more resistant to degradation compared with other natural stones originating from calcium carbonate. According to SEM Analysis, it was determined that it has a high insulation characteristic in the structure of Urfa limestone because it is contactless among pores. The usage performance of Urfa limestone in Gobekli Tepe, and in historical buildings and today’s buildings has been proven to be good according to engineering characterization tests. Urfa limestone fulfills all requirements for Global Heritage Stone Resource (GHSR) designation.

Jaisalmer Golden Limestone: A Heritage Stone Resource from the Desert of Western India

The yellow-colored limestone of Jaisalmer, famous as golden stone, has been extensively used in the architectonic heritage of western India. The architectural heritage, built of this limestone, imparts an exquisite character to Jaisalmer city, which is popularly known as “The Golden City.” The Jaisalmer Fort built using Jaisalmer Limestone, locally referred to as “Sonar Qila” meaning “Golden Fort,” has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Jaisalmer is renowned for architecturally distinctive Jaisalmer Fort, Palace of Maharawal (now Fort Palace Museum), Jain and Lodurva temples, Nathmalji-ki-Haveli, Patwon ki Haveli, Salim Singh ki Haveli, and Bada Bag cenotaphs (burial monuments, locally known as chhatris) constructed using the yellow Jaisalmer Limestone. Besides being used as a major building material, it has found profound usage in inlay work done in many religious places, forts, palaces, and mausoleums built during the reign of Mughals in India from sixteenth century onwards. The Jaisalmer Limestone, also known as yellow limestone, is well exposed around Jaisalmer city. It belongs to the Jaisalmer Formation of the Jurassic age. The Jaisalmer Limestone is hard and compact with low porosity, which has been classified as oolitic to bioclastic grainstone, packstone to wackestone. The yellow limestone, which is the most sought-after variety due to its pleasing color, texture, and aesthetics, is being quarried around the city of Jaisalmer for decades. The yellow limestone is commonly traded as “Yellow Marble.” The common use of the Jaisalmer Limestone includes floor tiles, wall claddings, counter tops, and most importantly as an ornamental stone. The Jaisalmer Limestone is exported to various countries across the Middle East and Europe in the form of slabs, tiles, and handicrafts. The Golden Jaisalmer Limestone’s wide usage in the heritage monuments in India deserves to be promoted on a global scenario. Thus, we propose it to be designated as the “Global Heritage Stone Resource” from India.

The importance of “Pavonazzetto marble” (Docimium-Phrygia/Iscehisar-Turkey) since ancient times and its properties as a global heritage stone resource

In ancient times, many monuments and buildings were built using marble. Especially, the use of marble increased in the Roman Empire period. Important public buildings required the best marble, and generally, high-quality stones were used in imperial building projects. For this purpose, many marble quarries were opened in the empire land, and the old ones were used once again. One of the most important marble quarries was located in the central Phrygia, Asia Minor. Pavonazzetto marble known as Docimaean marble, marmor Phrygium, or Synnadic marble in ancient times was extracted in Iscehisar, ancient Docimium (near modern Afyon in west-central Turkey). Pavonazzetto marble was transported via Synnada, Apameia, and Laodiceia, down the Maeander to Tralles and then to the Port of Ephesos. Pavonazzetto marbles were exported from the Port of Ephesus, to all Mediterranean, the North African coast, South Spain, and South England. The most important evidence proving the exportation of marble from Asia Minor to the entire Mediterranean Region is the shipwrecks with stone cargoes detected on various coasts. Pavonazzetto marble, which is found to be used in ancient cities in various Mediterranean countries, has been used in many buildings and monumental structures such as Pantheon, Forum of Trajan, Forum of Augustus, Temple of Apollo, Temple of Mars Ultor, Basilica Julia, Basilica Aemelia, Basilica San Paolo Fuori Le Mura, Basilica Ulpia, Arch of Constantine, and Baths of Caracalla. The aim of present paper was to introduce Pavonazzetto marble used abundantly in major monuments and buildings in ancient times and having international significance. For this purpose, laboratory studies were carried out for material characterisation of Pavonazzetto marble. Main technical values and parameters were studied by chemical, mineralogical-petrographic (polarising microscope, XRD, and SEM), physical, and mechanical tests/analyses. It was determined that the violet color of this marble type is due to the presence of iron oxide and phlogopite minerals. The results of physical mechanical tests indicated soundness of Pavonazzetto marble.

Jodhpur Sandstone: an Architectonic Heritage Stone from India

Jodhpur Sandstone, used extensively in several regional heritage buildings in north-western India, geologically belongs to the Ediacaran-Cambrian age Marwar Supergroup. The Marwar Supergroup has been subdivided into Jodhpur (arenaceous facies), Bilara (carbonate facies) and Nagaur (argillaceous facies) groups (in stratigraphically ascending order). The brown, red, pink and creamish pink varieties of Jodhpur Group Sandstone are the most preferred dimension stone varieties, excavated from several open quarries in the region between Jodhpur and Satrava in western part of Rajasthan State, NW India. The region has an old quarrying history, dating back to the use of sandstone in the fourth century temples in Mandor, eighth century Osian Temple Complex (also called as Khajuraho of Rajasthan for its intricate carvings in sandstone) and several historic monuments, such as Mandore Fort, Royal Tombs at Mandore Garden, Mehrangarh Fort, Clock Tower, Jaswant Thada, Umaid Bhawan Palace, etc. Several present day institutions/corporate houses of national eminence, such as the Rajasthan High Court, Indian Institute of Technology (Jodhpur), All India Institute of Medical Sciences (Jodhpur), Umaid Heritage Residential Complex and Hotel Radisson (Jodhpur) etc. exemplify continued use of Jodhpur Sandstone in contemporary times. Buildings of the Karachi Municipal Corporation and Karachi Chamber of Commerce and Industry in southern Pakistan attest to the international usage of Jodhpur Sandstone. The Jodhpur Sandstone can be classified as ‘quartz arenite’ comprising rounded to sub-rounded quartz grains with ferruginous cement. Its mature, mineralogy and moderate to high endurance, resistance to weathering, etc., render it suitable for intricate carving. Owing to these characteristics and its aesthetic appeal, it is used in a range of artefacts and handicrafts within India and overseas. The Jodhpur Sandstone fulfils the criteria laid down by the Heritage Stone Sub-commission for designation as a Global Heritage Stone Resource and we propose a case for its consideration and accreditation as a Global Heritage Stone Resource from India.

Trentino Porphyry, Italy

Abstract Trentino Porphyry is an igneous rock composed of rhyolitic–rhyodacitic ignimbrites. It belongs to the Athesian Volcanic Group, a widespread calc-alkaline magmatic association of Lower Permian age (280–270 Ma) occurring in the Trentino-Alto Adige region, north Italy. Extraction and processing are currently carried out in Trento Province, particularly in the region of Cembra Valley and its surroundings. Initially introduced for road setts throughout Trentino and Südtirol, Trentino Porphyry has progressively become one of the most important materials for paving and facing in Europe and all over the world, where it is appreciated and renowned for its durability. It has successively acquired an unquestionable versatility of application, thanks to a rare mix of mineralogy and textural and structural features, combined with excellent technical properties. Given the role played by this stone in almost any aspect of the area – cultural, architectural, production and social – it is proposed for candidacy as a Global Heritage Stone Resource.

Échaillon stone from France: a Global Heritage Stone Resource proposal

Abstract Échaillon stone, a Mesozoic platform limestone from SE France, is proposed as a Global Heritage Stone Resource. The Échaillon stone quarries are located at the western termination of the Alps, near the city of Grenoble. Stone from the main Échaillon quarries is an Upper Jurassic to Berriasian bioclastic near-reef limestone, renowned for its two characteristic white and pink colours. Two ancillary quarries nearby, the Lignet and Rovon quarries, provided the Lower Cretaceous (Barremian to Aptian) Yellow Échaillon stone, of lagoonal origin. Échaillon stone's unique characteristics, resistance to weathering and high aesthetic values made it a prized building and ornamental material used in many significant historical buildings in Europe, North Africa and the USA. Although the first use of Échaillon stone in buildings dates from the Gallo-Roman period, the industrial use ranges from the mid-nineteenth century, during the heyday of the Beaux-Arts architecture period in France, to the mid-twentieth century. The reputation of Échaillon stone was bolstered by world-renowned architects, sculptors and artists who used it for historical building ornament and sculptures. By the turn of the twentieth century, production started to decline and it ceased by the middle of that century.

The white marbles of Brasília, a World Heritage site and capital of Brazil

Abstract Created in the central and western part of Brazil to be the new capital of the country, Brasília is a definitive example of modernist twentieth-century urbanism and was named a Cultural Heritage Property by UNESCO in 1987. It was built in just four years (1956–60), following a design by urbanist Lúcio Costa and architect Oscar Niemeyer. However, despite the worldwide recognition of the architectural value of the buildings, the extensive use of white marbles as cladding is scarcely mentioned in the literature. Surveys conducted in this work indicate that the majority of the marble was sourced primarily from the Italva region (Rio de Janeiro), and probably, in minor quantities, from Cachoeiro de Itapemirim region (Espírito Santo). Available technological data for rocks from those regions revealed their suitable engineering properties as natural stone. Currently, although most of the slabs still remain on the buildings, the preservation of this world cultural heritage is urgent, as pointed out by UNESCO. For this purpose, the potential designation under the name the Brasília white marbles as a Global Heritage Stone Resource would be very beneficial, encouraging the availability of these natural stones for conservation and restoration.

Worldwide examples of global heritage stones: an introduction

Abstract Heritage stones are stones that have special significance in human culture. The papers in this volume discuss a wide variety of such stones, including stones from Europe, Asia, North and South America, Africa and Australia. Igneous (basalt, porphyry and a variety of granites), sedimentary (sandstone, limestone) and metamorphic (marble, quartzite, gneiss, slate, soapstone) stones are featured. These stones have been used over long periods of time for a wide range of uses, including monuments, buildings of architectural note, columns, roofing, tiling and lithography. A number of papers in this book provide information that is essential for eventual approval of stones as a Global Heritage Stone Resource or a group of stones as a Global Heritage Stone Province.

Berea sandstone: A heritage stone of international significance from Ohio, USA

Abstract Berea sandstone, a potential Global Heritage Stone Resource, has been one of the most widely used sandstones in North America. This Paleozoic sandstone, quarried for more than 200 years in Ohio, has been used across much of the continent. Thousands of commercial, residential, ecclesiastical, government and other structures have been built with Berea sandstone, including Thomas Worthington's mansion in Chillicothe, Ohio, the Michigan Capitol in Lansing, Michigan, the Carnegie Library and Natural History Museum Building in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and parts of the Parliament buildings in Canada. Grindstones made from Berea sandstone were shipped throughout North America, as well as to the Caribbean, South America, Europe and Asia. The stone is celebrated in a number of locations, notably Berea and Amherst, where quarries have been important historical sources of this stone. It has been known by a number of different geological and commercial names, including Berea grit and Amherst stone, complicating its identification from historical sources. Stone from the most productive quarries, however, was known to be homogeneous and can be identified by its quartz–arenite to sublithic–arenite composition, its fine to medium sand (125–350 µm) grain size and iron-cement spots. Berea sandstone continues to be quarried today in Erie and Lorain counties.

Cockeysville marble: a heritage stone from Maryland, USA

Abstract By virtue of its use in iconic monuments and historic buildings in the USA, Cockeysville marble, a dolomitic to calcitic lower Paleozoic (Cambrian/Ordovician) marble quarried in Baltimore County and adjacent areas in Maryland, is proposed as a potential Global Heritage Stone Resource. The most important use of this stone was for the Washington Monument in Washington, DC whose construction began in 1848; the second most important use was for the 108 columns of the United States Capitol's wings, completed in 1868. It was also used for two of the oldest major marble monuments in the USA, Baltimore's Battle Monument (dedicated in 1827) and Washington Monument (completed in 1829), as well as Baltimore's City Hall, Buffalo's Adkins Art Museum, Detroit's Fisher Building and parts of St Patrick's Cathedral in New York City. During the nineteenth century white Cockeysville was most desired, but a colourful variety, Mar Villa marble, was also used in the first decades of the twentieth century. Cockeysville marble is no longer quarried for dimension stone. All Cockeysville used outdoors has weathered to a lesser or great extent, but early testing indicating that the dolomitic marble would be more durable has proved to be true.

The Candoglia Marble and the “Veneranda Fabbrica del Duomo di Milano”: A Renowned Georesource to Be Potentially Designed as Global Heritage Stone

Marbles from Alpine area have been widely employed to build and decorate masterpieces and buildings which often represent the cultural heritage of an area (statuary, historic buildings and sculptures). Candoglia marble, object of the present research, is one of the most famous and appreciated marbles from Alpine area; it has been quarried since Roman times in the Verbano-Cusio-Ossola (VCO; Piemonte—NW Italy) extractive area. Candoglia Marble outcrops are present as lenses within the high-grade paragneisses of the Ivrea Zone, a visible section of deep continental crust characterised by amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphism (Palaeozoic period). Candoglia calcitic marble (80–85% CaCO3 and the 15–20% other minerals) shows a characteristic pink to gray colour and a coarse-grained texture (>3 mm): frequent centimetre-thick dark-greenish silicate layers (mainly represented by diopside and tremolite) characterize the texture of the marble. It has been largely used in local rural constructions and historical buildings, but its most famous application has been (and still is) for the “Duomo di Milano” construction (fourteenth century). The Veneranda Fabbrica del Duomo di Milano carried out the anthropogenic activities dealing with the Candoglia marble exploitation; it has to be highlighted that the company have managed the Marble exploitation during the last seven centuries and that the quarry itself is a tangible sign of the development of extraction and heritage in the VCO area. Candoglia marble can be recognized as a significant example of a “Global Heritage Stone Resource”: its exploitation from quarry to building (the Duomo di Milano) well represents the close correlation between stone and cultural heritage, between georesources and humankind development.

Vindhyan Sandstone: a Crowning Glory of Architectonic Heritage from India

Sandstones belonging to the Vindhyan Supergroup (Proterozoic age) adorn several architectonic heritage structures in northern and north-western India. The Mesolithic Bhimbetika rock shelter, a UNESCO World Heritage site, represents the oldest record of its use by the pre-historic man. The Sanchi Stupas, Qutub Minar, Humayun’s Tomb, Tomb of Safdarjung, Agra Fort, Red Fort, Chittorgarh Fort, Buland Darwaza (gate) in Fatehpur Sikri and Jama Masjid, to name a few, are also heritage monuments built of Vindhyan sandstone. Most of these structures are also listed as UNESCO World Heritage sites. India Gate, Rashtrapati Bhawan, Central Secretariat, Parliament Building in Delhi and many more such buildings made with Vindhyan sandstone are some of the more popular architectonic heritage sites in the capital of India. These architectonic heritage structures still stand in their pristine form and bear testimony to the lasting endurance. Vindhyan sandstone, used extensively as dimension stone, is monomineralic in composition with chemically (acids and alkalis) resistant quartz as the dominant mineral. Vindhyan rocks include well-bedded, undeformed and unmetamorphosed sandstone, limestone and mudstone; however, the sandstone has been the most favoured stone for architectural (heritage) structures. Vindhyan sandstones exhibit a range of colours from dark red to brown, earthy buff, yellow, off-white to spotted types, etc. The most popular are the off-white varieties owing to their aesthetic appearance and resistance to weathering. Amongst all the stratigraphic units, the Vindhyan Supergroup alone is the major contributor of masonry sandstone reserves in India; the rocks are quarried throughout the Vindhyan Basin. The Vindhyan (Supergroup) sandstones are known by numerous local trade names, such as Agra Red/Pink, Dholpur Red/Pink/Beige and Bansi Pink. In modern times, Vindhyan sandstone has also been put to numerous other uses such as garden furniture, sculpturing, carving, floor tiling, paving and cladding, owing to its resistance to weathering and ease of workability. The current and/or curved bedding patterns, spots due to iron staining, further enhance appearance and demand of finished Vindhyan sandstone as dimension stone. It meets all the requisite criteria for according the status of a Global Heritage Stone Resource.

Heritage stone in South Australia

South Australia has the greatest utilisation of heritage or building stone in Australia because of its lack of timber resources. Consequently, natural stone was intensively used from the beginning of European colonisation. Building stones in South Australia, notable for their variety given the State’s diverse geology, can be challenging to designate as to their international importance. However, dimension stone in South Australia can also be designated as having national, regional, local or prospective importance. Commonly, stone in South Australia is restricted in use to a specific town, or even a single construction, and has only local significance except where use involves special stone characteristics, unusual stone masonry or use in a building with significant heritage. For instance, the town of Second Valley has a localised use of marble, likely the earliest use (1849) of this rock type in the State. Another example, ‘Adelaide Black Granite’, quarried since 1958, should probably be recognised internationally as a ‘Global Heritage Stone Resource’, as it has had intensive monumental use around Australia, utilisation as cladding in modern buildings, as well as paving and walling in Australia’s National Parliament in Canberra. It has also been exported, notably used for the Australian Embassy in Japan and for a major War Memorial at Le Hamel, France. South Australian slate quarries also provide significant heritage stone. For example, the Willunga Slate quarry south of Adelaide has been sourced for roofing slate and walling since 1840 and is arguably the longest continuous mining operation in Australia; this resource has obvious national significance given a period of quarrying extending to the present, coupled with national distribution of its products. Probably the most widespread stone sourced in South Australia is the surface limestone or calcrete, quarried in the Adelaide area until the 1850s and used for general construction. The stone continues to be used in rural areas. While arguably only of local significance, it could be considered to have national importance because of its extensive use in churches, public building, hotels, houses and simple walling across a vast area of South Australia. Additional research is needed to clarify the heritage status of many building stones used in South Australia.

Indiana Limestone: America's building stone

Abstract Indiana Limestone is one of the most used and versatile building stones in the USA. It is a uniform, carbonate grainstone formed during the Mississippian Subperiod of the Carbonifereous. The stone has excellent physical properties, good workability, fire resistance, durability, sustainability, reserves sufficient for hundreds of years, remarkable history, and is available in pleasing colours and textures. Indiana Limestone is used extensively for important buildings, homes, or carved as accents and sculptures, as well as other uses. At one time it was estimated that 60–80% of important US stone buildings were built with Indiana Limestone. This stone has been used for significant, even iconic buildings such as the Empire State Building and the Yankee Stadium, the Pentagon and many other government buildings, even religious structures such as the National Cathedral in Washington, DC, notable houses such as the Biltmore House in North Carolina, many Chicago landmarks, plus libraries, research centres, academic buildings and museums, across the USA. Sculptures throughout the USA and other countries are made of Indiana Limestone. The stone has good sustainability and is incorporated into the very culture of the state of Indiana and America. Indiana Limestone merits designation as a Global Heritage Stone Resource.