Global Greenhouse Gas Reduction Research Articles

Integrated e-Methanol and Drop-in Fuels Hydrothermal Liquefaction Platform-Techno-Economic and GHG Emissions Assessment for Grid-Connected Plants under Flexible BECCU(S) Operation.

This study examines the combined production of drop-in fuels and methanol using hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) as a technological basis in the context of bioenergy and power-to-X (PtX) applications. Given the increasing need for flexibility in a system dominated by fluctuating renewable power, we evaluated flexible methanol operation as a strategy to harness global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in a grid-connected HTL setup. In this operation, the biogenic CO2 destination is alternated between methanol synthesis bioenergy with carbon capture and utilization and combined underground storage depending on the hourly electricity price and grid carbon intensity. The results indicate that the strategy has potential to maintain the average fuel carbon intensity within the 65% GHG reduction threshold set by the renewable energy directive III at a minimum methanol price of 870 EUR/t. This approach could facilitate implementation as it does not require dedicated renewable power generation and hydrogen storage, potentially decreasing costs compared to semi-islands and off-grid PtX systems.

Global Versus Regional Carbon Taxation: Exploring a Natural Experiment

The reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions has priority due to climate change. Scientists across disciplines promote carbon taxation or carbon pricing as an instrument to mitigate the negative externality of fossil energies. We exhibit two insufficiencies of today’s regulatory policy by utilizing a novel natural experiment. First, carbon taxation is only effective if it is implemented on a global scale because fossil energy markets and emissions are cross-border and global. Second, carbon taxation is based on an extrinsic mechanism and does not alter intrinsic behaviour sustainably. Our applied theory and modelling approach is corroborating these findings. The present regulatory approach is doomed to fail due to overambitious European countries and unambitious (partly realistic) rest of the world. Our interdisciplinary analysis unravels a new agenda to achieve the essential aim. What is needed is a global climate club, as proposed by Nobel Laureate William Nordhaus, with a least but global greenhouse gas reduction.

Cost-effectiveness of farm- vs. regional-level climate change mitigation policies

Abstract Agriculture is a significant source of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, making reduction targets crucially needed. Worldwide, countries have set agricultural GHG reduction goals and discussed methods to reach them. A crucial aspect is, whether the policy target level is set at the individual farm or at a regional level. In this context, we assess the advantages regarding cost-effectiveness and GHG-reduction potential of targets at the regional level. First, we use the bioeconomic farm-level model FarmDyn to simulate the changes in income and GHG emissions of 65 Swiss dairy farms. Secondly, we develop an optimization algorithm to compare the efficiency and efficacy of these two target approaches. Our analysis reveals that regional targets, which consider the heterogenous abatement costs of the sector, are more cost-efficient than farm-level ones. Specifically, they enable a 10 per cent GHG reduction at 88 per cent lower costs, suggesting they might be a more cost-effective alternative to taxation.

Comparative life cycle greenhouse gas analysis of clean hydrogen pathways: Assessing domestic production and overseas import in South Korea

The development of a Clean Hydrogen Standard based on life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is gaining prominence on the international agenda. Thus, a framework for assessing life-cycle GHG emissions for clean hydrogen pathways is necessary. In this study, the comprehensive datasets and effects of various scenarios encompassing hydrogen production, carriers (liquid hydrogen, ammonia, methylcyclohexane), carbon capture and storage (CCS), target analysis year (2021, 2030) to reflect trends of greening grid electricity and potential import countries on aggregated life-cycle GHG emissions were presented. South Korea was chosen as a case study region, and the low-carbon alternatives were suggested for reducing aggregated emissions to meet the Korean standard (5 kgCO2e/kgH2). First, capturing and storing nearly entire (>90%) CO2 from fossil- and waste-based production pathways is deemed essential. Second, when repurposing the use of hydrogen that was otherwise used internally, applying a penalty for substitution is appropriate, leading to results notably exceeding the standard. Third, for electrolysis-based hydrogen, using renewable or nuclear electricity is essential. Lastly, when hydrogen is imported, in a well-to-point-of-delivery (WtP) perspective, using renewable electricity during hydrogen conversion into a carrier and reusing the produced hydrogen for endothermic reconversion reaction are recommended. By implementing the developed calculation framework to other countries' cases, it was observed that importing hydrogen to regions having scope of WtP or above (e.g., well-to-wheel) might not meet the threshold due to additional emissions from importation processes. Additionally, for hydrogen carriers undergoing the endothermic reconversion, the approach to reduce WtP emissions (reusing produced hydrogen) may conflict with the approach to reduce well-to-gate (WtG) emission (using external fossil-based fuel). The discrepancy highlights the need to set a broader scope of emissions assessment to effectively promote the life-cycle emission reduction efforts of hydrogen importers. This study contributes to the field of clean hydrogen GHG emission assessment, offering a robust database and calculation framework while addressing the effects of greening grid electricity and CCS implementation, proposing low-carbon alternatives and GHG assessment scope to achieve global GHG reduction.

Application of CO2 Geological Storage Technology in Global Greenhouse Gas Reduction

Greenhouse gas emission has serious impacts on human societies, ecosystems and economies as a result of global climate change. In response to this challenge, the global community has set greenhouse gas reduction targets aimed at reducing emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2). In terms of emission reduction technology, CO2 geological storage technology is considered to be an important and potential solution. The wide application of CO2 geological storage technology can help achieve greenhouse gas reduction targets and slow down the greenhouse effect of the earth. The research will explore the role of CO2 geological storage technologies for global greenhouse gas emission reduction targets. Through extensive collection of relevant information on CO2 geological storage technology around the world, comprehensive research and analysis of the principle, application cases, limiting challenges and environmental impact of this technology, to evaluate the prospects and prospects of CO2 geological storage technology in achieving global emission reduction goals challenge. The study found that the geological storage of CO2 can promote the reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions, and its long-term effect will be more obvious, and the advantages will be more obvious with the improvement of technology and the cooperation between international governments.

Comparative analysis of the contribution of municipal waste management policies to GHG reductions in China.

Waste generation and disposal have been a global issue for decades. The total global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2019 were 49,758 MtCO2e with waste disposal accounting for 3.2%. With rapid urbanization trends, municipal solid waste (MSW) has become a global challenge which needs to be addressed. A large fraction of MSW such as food wastes, e-waste among others still ends up with unregulated dumps or openly burned in low-income countries. As a response, China initiated the 'zero-waste' pilot program which has been running since 2019. To investigate the potential contribution of MSW management to GHG reductions, this study selected four 'zero-waste' cities in China, namely Shenzhen, Panjin, Xining and Tongling, as case studies to assess the impacts of different MSW management policies on GHG reductions from 2015 to 2019. Results demonstrated that Shenzhen city achieved progress in reducing GHGs, which decreased by more than 40% between 2015 and 2019. This study provides policy recommendations and waste management approaches and practices to optimize MSW management and reduction of GHGs.

Decarbonizing bulk shipping combining ship design and alternative power

The Sixth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stresses the urgency to rapidly reduce global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions to contain global warming. The main focus in the design of bulk vessels for several decades has been maximizing cargo-carrying capacity at the lowest build cost. Reduction in energy consumption and emissions, if achieved at all, was heavily limited by the main design focus. This paper decarbonizes bulk shipping by combining ship design and alternative power. The results indicate: First, building more slender bulk vessels that are powered with wind-assisted propulsion reduces fuel consumption and GHG emissions by around 25% at an abatement cost of less than Zero, i.e., free of charge; Second, when combining slender hull and wind-assisted propulsion with Zero-carbon fuels, a 100% GHG reduction comes at an abatement cost of 328 USD per ton of CO2, which is still significantly less than the 459 USD per ton of CO2 with Zero-carbon fuels only.

Countries with sustained greenhouse gas emissions reductions: an analysis of trends and progress by sector

ABSTRACT While global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are still rising, a number of countries have emerged with a sustained record of emissions reductions. In this article, we identify these countries and examine their progress, exploring how fast, how deep, and in which sectors they have reduced emissions. We analyse changes in all major GHG emissions sources, with both production – and consumption-based accounting, but exclude very small countries with high volatility, along with land-use, land-use change and forestry CO2 emissions. We find that 24 countries have sustained reductions in annual CO2 and GHG emissions between 1970 and 2018, in total equalling 3.2 GtCO2eq since their respective emissions peaks. In all but three countries, overall GHG reductions are less than energy and industrial CO2 reductions alone. We group countries into three types of emissions pathway: six former Eastern Bloc countries, where emissions declined rapidly in the 1990s and have continued on a downward trajectory since; six Long-term decline countries, which have sustained reductions since the 1970s; and 12 Recent peak countries, whose emissions decline began in the 2000s. In all cases, emissions reductions were achieved primarily in the energy systems sector, specifically in electricity and heat generation, which still remains the largest source of emissions in most countries. By contrast, in the transport sector, emissions tend to be stable or increasing. Transport is the second largest source of current emissions in Recent peak and Long-term decline countries. While the total GHG reductions of these 24 countries are trivial compared to recent global emissions growth, some have achieved a decline of up to 50% in their annual emissions, showing what is possible even under very moderate climate action. Most countries achieved emissions reductions alongside sustained economic growth, and some approached the fast annual rates of change that will be needed across the world in the coming decades to limit warming to 2°C. This raises the hope that more substantive climate policy, as planned in a growing number of countries, may bring about deeper and more rapid emissions reductions than some may expect today. Key policy insights 24 countries have sustained CO2 and GHG emissions reductions between 1970 and 2018 The annual emissions reductions of some countries are within the range of those needed to limit global warming to 2°C, but not consistently, nor across all underlying sectors Most emissions reductions were achieved in the energy sector; transport emissions have remained stable or continue to grow

Global scenarios of resource and emission savings from material efficiency in residential buildings and cars

Material production accounts for a quarter of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Resource-efficiency and circular-economy strategies, both industry and demand-focused, promise emission reductions through reducing material use, but detailed assessments of their GHG reduction potential are lacking. We present a global-scale analysis of material efficiency for passenger vehicles and residential buildings. We estimate future changes in material flows and energy use due to increased yields, light design, material substitution, extended service life, and increased service efficiency, reuse, and recycling. Together, these strategies can reduce cumulative global GHG emissions until 2050 by 20–52 Gt CO2-eq (residential buildings) and 13–26 Gt CO2e-eq (passenger vehicles), depending on policy assumptions. Next to energy efficiency and low-carbon energy supply, material efficiency is the third pillar of deep decarbonization for these sectors. For residential buildings, wood construction and reduced floorspace show the highest potential. For passenger vehicles, it is ride sharing and car sharing.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Service Expansion in Developing Countries

Air conditioning and refrigeration services are increasing rapidly in developing countries due to improved living standards. The cooling services industry is currently responsible for over 10% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, so it is critical to investigate how the expansion of cooling services will impact future GHG emissions. In this article, we first examine the current status and expected expansion of cooling services worldwide and the associated GHG emissions. Then, we review potential improvements and innovations that could reduce future GHG emissions. Three approaches to reduce GHG emissions within the cooling sector include converting to alternative refrigerants, improving energy efficiency, and moving toward a lower-carbon electricity grid. In addition, we identify eight interventions that apply to the built environment or the food supply chain that would lead to additional GHG reductions in the cooling sector.

Annual performance evaluation of thermoelectric generator-assisted building-integrated photovoltaic system with phase change material

Owing to the economic recession due to the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, energy-efficient building retrofitting has been considered as an integrated solution to recover the economy and maintain global greenhouse gas reduction. As part of retrofitting existing building-integrated photovoltaic systems during building renovations, this study evaluated the energy generation potential of a thermoelectric generator-assisted building-integrated photovoltaic system with a phase change material. The combination of a thermoelectric generator and phase change material with photovoltaic systems results in solar cell temperature reduction and additional electricity output owing to the Seebeck effect, increasing the total generated energy from the system. Simulations of the proposed system were performed using MATLAB R2020a, based on transient energy balance equations. The appropriate melting temperature and thickness of the phase change material were derived to maximize the annual electricity generation of the proposed system from simulations of 12 design days in each month. The proposed system with the selected phase change material conditions exhibited a 1.09% annual increase in generation output and 0.91%, −1.32%, 2.25%, and 3.16% generation improvements from spring to winter, compared with the building-integrated photovoltaic system alone. Theoretically, the proposed system is expected to generate 4.47% more energy by minimizing the thermal resistance of the system and improving thermoelectric generator performance.

Uncovering the true cost of hydrogen production routes using life cycle monetisation

Hydrogen has been identified as a potential energy vector to decarbonise the transport and chemical sectors and achieve global greenhouse gas reduction targets. Despite ongoing efforts, hydrogen technologies are often assessed focusing on their global warming potential while overlooking other impacts, or at most including additional metrics that are not easily interpretable. Herein, a wide range of alternative technologies have been assessed to determine the total cost of hydrogen production by coupling life-cycle assessments with an economic evaluation of the environmental externalities of production. By including monetised values of environmental impacts on human health, ecosystem quality, and resources on top of the levelised cost of hydrogen production, an estimation of the “real” total cost of hydrogen was obtained to transparently rank the alternative technologies. The study herein covers steam methane reforming (SMR), coal and biomass gasification, methane pyrolysis, and electrolysis from renewable and nuclear technologies. Monetised externalities are found to represent a significant percentage of the total cost, ultimately altering the standard ranking of technologies. SMR coupled with carbon capture and storage emerges as the cheapest option, followed by methane pyrolysis, and water electrolysis from wind and nuclear. The obtained results identify the “real” ranges for the cost of hydrogen compared to SMR (business as usual) by including environmental externalities, thereby helping to pinpoint critical barriers for emerging and competing technologies to SMR.

Embodied GHG emissions of buildings – The hidden challenge for effective climate change mitigation

Buildings are major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and contributors to the climate crisis. To meet climate-change mitigation needs, one must go beyond operational energy consumption and related GHG emissions of buildings and address their full life cycle. This study investigates the global trends of GHG emissions arising across the life cycle of buildings by systematically compiling and analysing more than 650 life cycle assessment (LCA) case studies. The results, presented for different energy performance classes based on a final sample of 238 cases, show a clear reduction trend in life cycle GHG emissions due to improved operational energy performance. However, the analysis reveals an increase in relative and absolute contributions of so‐called ‘embodied’ GHG emissions, i.e., emissions arising from manufacturing and processing of building materials. While the average share of embodied GHG emissions from buildings following current energy performance regulations is approximately 20–25% of life cycle GHG emissions, this figure escalates to 45–50% for highly energy-efficient buildings and surpasses 90% in extreme cases. Furthermore, this study analyses GHG emissions at time of occurrence, highlighting the ‘carbon spike’ from building production. Relating the results to existing benchmarks for buildings’ GHG emissions in the Swiss SIA energy efficiency path shows that most cases exceed the target of 11.0 kgCO2eq/m2a. Considering global GHG reduction targets, these results emphasize the urgent need to reduce GHG emissions of buildings by optimizing both operational and embodied impacts. The analysis further confirmed a need for improving transparency and comparability of LCA studies.

How to slash greenhouse gas emissions in the freight sector: Policy insights from a technology-adoption model of Canada

Freight or goods-movement transportation accounts for 6% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and 10% of emissions in our case study of Canada – mostly from heavy-duty trucks. Little research has explored the types of policies needed to achieve 2050 GHG mitigation goals in the land freight sector, i.e., 80% reductions from 2005 levels. We use a behaviourally-realistic technology-adoption model (CIMS-Freight) to simulate the GHG impacts of several climate policies, individually and in combinations, on the land freight sector (trucking and rail). Results indicate that current policies in Canada (including standards and carbon pricing) will not achieve GHG reduction targets for this sector – in fact, emissions continue to rise. Further, no individual policy has a high probability of achieving 2030 or 2050 GHG targets, including more stringent versions of the carbon tax, fuel efficiency standards, low-carbon fuel standard (LCFS), or a zero-emissions vehicle (ZEV) mandate for trucks. Finally, we identify several policy combinations that have a high probability of achieving 2050 goals, in particular a stringent ZEV mandate for trucks complemented by a stringent LCFS. While other effective policies and policy combinations are possible, Canada's present and proposed policies are not stringent enough to reach deep GHG targets.

Key factors affecting greenhouse gas emissions in the Canadian industrial sector: A decomposition analysis

Abstract The industrial sector, accounting for 30% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, is among the key drivers of human-induced climate change impacts. Given this volume of emissions, the sector could play a critical role in mitigating climate change. Canada is among the top 10 global GHG emitters and its industrial sector is responsible for more than 39% of national emissions. GHG emissions from the sector increased by almost 32% between 1990 and 2017 and are expected to almost double by 2050 if no measures are taken. This paper aims to evaluate how different technical and economic factors have contributed to the increasing GHG emission trends in Canada’s industrial sector between 1990 and 2014. The Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index was developed and implemented as the decomposition method. Results from the analysis suggest that activity level is the biggest contributor to the increase in industrial GHG emissions between 1990 and 2014, which ranged from 5 Mt CO2eq in 1994 to 57 Mt CO2eq in 2014 compared to the 1990 baseline. Increased shares of low carbon-intensive industries and fuel switching contribute to GHG emission mitigation from the sector. The structural change is responsible for GHG reductions of 1.1 and 23.4 Mt CO2eq in 2000 and 2014, respectively. The impacts from fuel mixs and increased shares of low-carbon fuel ranged from −1 Mt CO2eq in 1994 to 16 Mt CO2eq in 2011. Despite improvements in process-energy-intensity (i.e., the energy consumed per unit of product) in several industries, changes in economic energy intensity (energy consumed per unit of economic output) have resulted in increased GHG emissions. These changes are mainly driven by changes in the process-energy intensity of the oil sands mining sector, the largest contributor to industrial GHG emissions in Canada.

A review of the use of LNG versus HFO in maritime industry

Maritime transport is responsible for about 2.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions representing around 1000 million tons of CO $$_2$$ annually. The situation of shipping emissions that strongly depends on future economic grows is aggravated by the fact that global green house gas (GHG) emissions are predicted to increase between 50 and 250% by 2050. This is not compatible with the internationally agreed goal of keeping global temperature increase below to $$2\,^{\circ }\hbox {C}$$ compared to pre-industrial levels, which requires worldwide emissions to be at least halved from 1990 levels by 2050. Furthermore, ship owners are facing barriers implementing energy efficiency technologies to reduce CO $$_2$$ mainly due to reliability, and financial and economic constraints as well as due to the complexity of change. Energy consumption and CO $$_2$$ emissions of ships could be reduced by applying operational measures and implementing existing technologies. Further reductions could be achieved by implementing new innovative technologies. The aim of this study is to compare and review low carbon and advanced technologies that may help to reach international GHG reduction goals. A comparison table describing the different technologies, the estimated capital cost, technology readiness as well as the potential GHG reduction is drawn. The table also indicates if the technology suits better to new projects or to retrofitting. The comparison may help the key players to select the most convenient technology for their new projects. It will also be helpful for conversion of existing vessels.

Intensification of production, low emission pathways and sustainable strategies for backyard, layer and broiler chickens

Meat and eggs produced by chickens represent an important economic resource in many economies. In future, global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions produced by chickens will increase due to greater food demand. This study analyses the GHG emissions of chickens and identifies sustainable policy strategies for production intensification and GHG reduction. It advances beyond previous studies by combining GHG reduction and improving meat and egg production rather than reporting mitigation options only, and can thus provide low-emission pathways. The contemporaneous intensification of chicken production and GHG emission reduction are feasible for broiler, layer and backyard chickens in Moldova. For farmers, this important goal can be achieved by using feeds of good quality and high digestibility. An efficient utilization of feeds for backyard chickens (by a dietary replacement of 10% dry matter (DM) intake of fresh grass with 10% DM intake of barley) had the effect of reducing the total emissions to 78179, 79682 and 81238 tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent/year (t CO2-eq/year), increasing meat production to 2376, 2422 and 2469 t carcass weight/year and increasing egg production (in shell) to 47846, 48793, and 49741 t eggs/year with an increase of chickens of 2%, 6% and 10% per year, respectively. Policymakers can do a great deal to support the abatement of chicken emissions by developing long-term strategies, and regulations that are aimed towards mitigation targets and technologies. To effectively maximize emission reduction and increase production, however, policymakers must overcome the existing national barriers.Keywords: feed, greenhouse gas, manure, mitigation, policy

Challenges to Standardizing Emissions Calculation of Logistics Hubs as Basis for Decarbonizing Transport Chains on a Global Scale

Carbon footprinting is regarded as one means of enhancing transparency on where greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are produced within a transport chain and thus limiting the emissions and improving the efficiency of transport and transhipment on both the demand and supply sides of the market. To meet global GHG reduction targets and to realize sustainable transport chains, standardization of emissions calculations is progressing swiftly. One of the core requirements in the next steps of the standardization effort is harmonization of level of detail of the various transport modes. In particular logistics hubs have been identified as relevant for such a development and whereas developments for transport modes such as rail, road, air, or water are pursued by industry representatives and their organizations, logistics hubs have no organization which is intrinsically motivated to further develop an approach to emissions calculation. Research can deliver an important and valuable contribution here. Therefore, based on extensive empirical research in the form of questionnaires and real-life examples of emissions calculation, this paper describes the motivations and barriers currently experienced by shippers and logistics service providers when computing emissions. Possible approaches to overcoming these barriers and contributing to the further improvement of the level of maturity of emissions calculation of logistics hubs are described and discussed. The paper closes with an outlook on further requirements toward transport chain emissions calculation standardization developments.

Assessment of long-term energy efficiency improvement and greenhouse gas emissions mitigation options for the cement industry

The cement industry is responsible for between 5% and 9% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The increasing trend of GHG emissions from cement sector highlights the importance of GHG mitigation in this industry. In the current study, bottom-up energy modelling and scenario analyses were used to assess long-term GHG mitigation potential in the cement industry. The developed comprehensive, data-intensive, and technology-rich model is flexible and can be used to study the GHG mitigation potential in different regions. For the case study of Canada, a reference scenario along with 20 GHG emissions' reduction scenarios were developed in the Long-range Energy Alternative Planning (LEAP) model. For each scenario, cumulative energy saving and GHG reduction potential were analyzed. Furthermore, the net present value, cost of saved energy, and carbon were calculated to assess the economic performance of different scenarios. Carbon abatement cost curves were also developed using the GHG mitigation potential and the cost of implementing different energy efficiency options. Overall, compared to the reference scenario, the cumulative GHG mitigation potentials in the Canadian cement sector are 27 and 59 million tonnes CO2eq. by the years 2030 and 2050, respectively. More than 70% of the emissions’ reduction is achievable with negative cost.

Land use mediated GHG emissions and spillovers from increased consumption of bioplastics

Bioplastic production is a small but fast growing sector in the global bioeconomy, which may benefit from public support measures in the future as governments seek to promote more sustainable consumption patterns. Here we assess the potential net economy-wide impacts of a 5% bioplastic target relative to current plastic consumption in the main producing regions. We compare two alternative policy strategies to achieve the target in a general equilibrium framework that allows for substitution between conventional and bio-based plastics: a subsidy on bioplastics versus a tax on fossil-based plastic consumption. Our study is the first to quantify global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from an increased demand for bioplastics on a global scale, produced from arable crops, considering both direct and indirect land use change (LUC). The tax provokes a contraction of all sectors that employ plastics, which leads to a drop of 0.07% in global real GDP, whereas the subsidy has no significant effect on the global economy. Both tax and subsidy reduce world demand for petroleum products, by 0.37% and 0.07%, respectively, boosting demand for sugar- and starch-based feedstock in the bioplastic industry. This leads to emissions from LUC globally, which correspond to a carbon payback time of 22 years on average, with the associated annual abatement costs of over US$2000 per tonne of CO2-eq. The tax has greater GHG reduction potential in bioplastic producing regions but generates greater economic and environmental spillover effects in countries that do not enforce the target. Results show that promoting bioplastic consumption is not a cost-effective strategy for climate change mitigation if based on conventional feedstock, due to market-mediated GHG emissions from LUC. Bioplastics are not necessarily more sustainable than conventional polymers just because they are bio-based, although further assessment of potential environmental gains associated with biodegradability and recyclability is desirable.