Global Forest Resources Assessment Research Articles

Achievement of SDGS globally in biodiversity conservation and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by using green energy and maintaining forest cover

The global partnership for sustainable development is well-positioned to combat climate change and its impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity, aligning with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) on climate, oceans, marine resources, forests, biodiversity, and land degradation. This study has assessed and evaluated the status of global forests and biodiversity, greenhouse emissions, and global energy perspectives, synthesizing track progress on goals 13 and 15 targets focusing on climate change trends, forest cover, and biodiversity status. Review and analysis of global forest resource and biodiversity assessment, GHG emission inventories, verification of CO2 measurement, statistical review of world energy and renewables contributions to reduction of GHG emissions, and applying quantitative data on environmental change to identify impact and implications showed that the targeted SDG goals are able to address the issues needed to build climate resilience: maintaining forests and biodiversity, achieving zero emissions, and adopting renewables. Forests, which cover 31% of the world's land surface, provide habitat, clean air and water, and help mitigate climate change. However, 13 million hectares are lost each year, resulting in the desertification of 3.6 billion hectares. The world's tree stock has decreased slightly due to a decrease in forest area, with 8% of 8,300 animal breeds extinct and 22% on the verge of extinction, highlighting the importance of sustainable ecosystem management and biodiversity conservation. Global GHG emissions are expected to rise slightly in 2021 to 8 GtCO2e, comparable to or exceeding 2019 levels, and global temperatures could rise over 1.5°C by 2030. Human activities, including greenhouse gas emissions, contribute to global warming, with surface temperatures rising 1.1°C between 2011 and 2020. Mitigation policies expand, but warming may exceed 1.5°C by 2030. The world faces challenges in achieving climate change goals, necessitating increased ambition and implementation. Integrating climate action and sustainable development using renewable energy sources like bioenergy, solar, geothermal, hydropower, and wind is the most effective approach.

Exploring characteristics of national forest inventories for integration with global space-based forest biomass data

National forest inventories (NFIs) are a reliable source for national forest measurements. However, they are usually not developed for linking with remotely sensed (RS) biomass information. There are increasing needs and opportunities to facilitate this link towards better global and national biomass estimation. Thus, it is important to study and understand NFI characteristics relating to their integration with space-based products; in particular for the tropics where NFIs are quite recent, less frequent, and partially incomplete in several countries. Here, we (1) assessed NFIs in terms of their availability, temporal distribution, and extent in 236 countries from FAO's Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2020; (2) compared national forest biomass estimates in 2018 from FRA and global space-based Climate Change Initiative (CCI) product in 182 countries considering NFI availability and temporality; and (3) analyzed the latest NFI design characteristics in 46 tropical countries relating to their integration with space-based biomass datasets. We observed significant NFI availability globally and multiple NFIs were mostly found in temperate and boreal countries while most of the single NFI countries (94 %) were in the tropics. The latest NFIs were more recent in the tropics and many countries (35) implemented NFIs from 2016 onwards. The increasing availability and update of NFIs create new opportunities for integration with space-based data at the national level. This is supported by the agreement we found between country biomass estimates for 2018 from FRA and CCI product, with a significantly higher correlation in countries with recent NFIs. We observed that NFI designs varied greatly in tropical countries. For example, the size of the plots ranged from 0.01 to 1 ha and more than three-quarters of the countries had smaller plots of ≤0.25 ha. The existing NFI designs could pose specific challenges for statistical integration with RS data in the tropics. Future NFI and space-based efforts should aim towards a more integrated approach taking advantage of both data streams to improve national estimates and help future data harmonization efforts. Regular NFI efforts can be expanded with the inclusion of some super-site plots to enhance data integration with currently available space-based applications. Issues related to cost implications versus improvements in the accuracy, timeliness, and sustainability of national forest biomass estimation should be further explored.

Global progress towards sustainable forest management: bright spots and challenges

This paper analyses global progress towards sustainable forest management by climatic domains and national income levels using data from the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. It also examines enabling conditions for sustainable forest management. The findings reveal progress towards sustainable forest management globally supported by the widespread presence of enabling frameworks. However, such progress has been uneven, and the rate of forest loss is accelerating in tropical low-income countries where coverage of forest management plans remains low and forest certification insignificant. Allocating higher proportions of forest areas to conservation and smaller proportions for production in these countries has not led to improved protection and management of forests. To enhance forest management in these priority geographies, this paper proposes conservation through sustainable use and demonstrates the value of well-managed production forests in maintaining forest cover and ecosystem services at the landscape level.

A mid-20th century inventory-based estimate of global terrestrial vegetation carbon stocks

ABSTRACT Terrestrial biomass carbon stocks (BCS) play a vital role in the climate system, but benchmarked estimates prior to the late twentieth century remain scarce. Here, by making use of an early global forest resource assessment and harmonizing information on land use and carbon densities, we establish a global BCS account for the year 1950. Our best-guess BCS estimate is 450.2 PgC (median of all modulations: 517.8 PgC, range: 443.7–584.0 PgC), with ecosystems in Southern America and Western Africa storing c. 27 and 16% of the total respectively. Our estimates are in line with land change emissions estimates and suggest a reduction in BCS of 8–29% compared to the median, with losses in tropical subcontinents partially offset by gains in northern subcontinents. Our study demonstrates an approach to reconstruct global BCS by triangulating different data sources and extends the study of global BCS accounts further back into the twentieth century.

The global forest above-ground biomass pool for 2010 estimated from high-resolution satellite observations

Abstract. The terrestrial forest carbon pool is poorly quantified, in particular in regions with low forest inventory capacity. By combining multiple satellite observations of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) backscatter around the year 2010, we generated a global, spatially explicit dataset of above-ground live biomass (AGB; dry mass) stored in forests with a spatial resolution of 1 ha. Using an extensive database of 110 897 AGB measurements from field inventory plots, we show that the spatial patterns and magnitude of AGB are well captured in our map with the exception of regional uncertainties in high-carbon-stock forests with AGB >250 Mg ha−1, where the retrieval was effectively based on a single radar observation. With a total global AGB of 522 Pg, our estimate of the terrestrial biomass pool in forests is lower than most estimates published in the literature (426–571 Pg). Nonetheless, our dataset increases knowledge on the spatial distribution of AGB compared to the Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and highlights the impact of a country's national inventory capacity on the accuracy of the biomass statistics reported to the FRA. We also reassessed previous remote sensing AGB maps and identified major biases compared to inventory data, up to 120 % of the inventory value in dry tropical forests, in the subtropics and temperate zone. Because of the high level of detail and the overall reliability of the AGB spatial patterns, our global dataset of AGB is likely to have significant impacts on climate, carbon, and socio-economic modelling schemes and provides a crucial baseline in future carbon stock change estimates. The dataset is available at https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.894711 (Santoro, 2018).

An assessment of data sources, data quality and changes in national forest monitoring capacities in the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005–2020

Globally, countries report forest information to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations Global Forest Resources Assessments (FRA) at regular intervals. While the status and trends of national forest monitoring capacities have been previously assessed for the tropics, this has not been systematically done worldwide. In this paper, we assess the use and quality of forest monitoring data sources for national reporting to the FRA in 236 countries and territories. More specifically, we (a) analyze the use of remote sensing (RS) for forest area monitoring and the use of national forest inventory (NFI) for monitoring forest area, growing stock, biomass, carbon stock, and other attributes in FRA 2005–2020, (b) assess data quality in FRA 2020 using FAO tier-based indicators, and (c) zoom in to investigate changes in tropical forest monitoring capacities in FRA 2010–2020. Globally, the number of countries monitoring forest area using RS at good to very good capacities increased from 55 in FRA 2005 to 99 in FRA 2020. Likewise, the number of countries with good to very good NFI capacities increased from 48 in FRA 2005 to 102 in FRA 2020. This corresponds to ∼85% of the global forest area monitored with one or more nationally-produced up-to-date RS products or NFI in FRA 2020. For large proportions of global forests, the highest quality data was used in FRA 2020 for reporting on forest area (93%), growing stock (85%), biomass (76%), and carbon pools (61%). Overall, capacity improvements are more widespread in the tropics, which can be linked to continued international investments for forest monitoring especially in the context of reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in tropical countries (REDD+). More than 50% of the tropical countries with targeted international support improved both RS and NFI capacities in the period 2010–2020 on top of those that already had persistent good to very good capabilities. There is also a link between improvements in national capacities and improved governance measured against worldwide governance indicators (WGI). Our findings—the first global study—suggest an ever-improving data basis for national reporting on forest resources in the context of climate and development commitments, e.g. the Paris Agreement and Sustainable Development Goals.

Carbon emissions and removals from forests: new estimates, 1990–2020

Abstract. National, regional and global CO2 emissions and removals from forests were estimated for the period 1990–2020 using as input the country reports of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. The new Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates, based on a simple carbon stock change approach, update published information on net emissions and removals from forests in relation to (a) net forest conversion and (b) forest land. Results show a significant reduction in global emissions from net forest conversion over the study period, from a mean of 4.3 in 1991–2000 to 2.9 Gt CO2 yr−1 in 2016–2020. At the same time, forest land was a significant carbon sink globally but decreased in strength over the study period, from −3.5 to −2.6 Gt CO2 yr−1. Combining net forest conversion with forest land, our estimates indicated that globally forests were a small net source of CO2 to the atmosphere on average during 1990–2020, with mean net emissions of 0.4 Gt CO2 yr−1. The exception was the brief period 2011–2015, when forest land removals counterbalanced emissions from net forest conversion, resulting in a global net sink of −0.7 Gt CO2 yr−1. Importantly, the new estimates allow for the first time in the literature the characterization of forest emissions and removals for the decade just concluded, 2011–2020, showing that in this period the net contribution of forests to the atmosphere was very small, i.e., a sink of less than −0.2 Gt CO2 yr−1 – an estimate not yet reported in the literature. This near-zero balance was nonetheless the result of large global fluxes of opposite sign, namely net forest conversion emissions of 3.1 Gt CO2 yr−1 counterbalanced by net removals on forest land of −3.3 Gt CO2 yr−1. Finally, we compared our estimates with data independently reported by countries to the United Nations Framework on Climate Change, indicating close agreement between FAO and country emissions and removals estimates. Data from this study are openly available via the Zenodo portal (Tubiello, 2020), with DOI https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3941973, as well as in the FAOSTAT (Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database) emissions database (FAO, 2021a).

Discrepancies between Global Forest Net Primary Productivity Estimates Derived from MODIS and Forest Inventory Data and Underlying Factors

The net primary productivity (NPP) of a forest is an important indicator of its potential for the provision of ecosystem services such as timber, carbon, and biodiversity. However, accurately and consistently quantifying global forest NPP remains a challenge in practice. We converted carbon stock changes using the Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) data and carbon losses associated with disturbances and timber removals into an NPP equivalent measurement (FRA NPP*) and compared it with the NPP derived from the MODIS satellite data (MOD17 NPP) for the world’s forests. We found statistically significant differences between the two NPP estimates, with the FRA NPP* being lower than the MOD17 NPP; the differences were correlated with forest cover, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and GDP per capita in countries, and may also stem from the NPP estimation methods and scopes. While the former explicitly accounts for carbon losses associated with timber removals and disturbances, the latter better reflects the principles of photosynthesis. The discrepancies between the two NPP estimates increase in countries with a low income or low forest cover, calling for enhancing their forest resource assessment capacity. By identifying the discrepancies and underlying factors, we also provide new insights into the relationships between the MOD17 NPP and global forest carbon stock estimates, motivating and guiding future research to improve the robustness of quantifying global forest NPP and carbon sequestration potential.

Near-real time aboveground carbon emissions in Peru.

Monitoring aboveground carbon stocks and fluxes from tropical deforestation and forest degradation is important for mitigating climate change and improving forest management. However, high temporal and spatial resolution analyses are rare. This study presents the most detailed tracking of aboveground carbon over time, with yearly, quarterly and monthly estimations of emissions using the stock-difference approach and masked by the forest loss layer of Global Forest Watch. We generated high spatial resolution (1-ha) monitoring of aboveground carbon density (ACD) and emissions (ACE) in Peru by incorporating hundreds of thousands of Planet Dove satellite images, Sentinel-1 radar, topography and airborne LiDAR, embedded into a deep learning regression workflow using high-performance computing. Consistent ACD results were obtained for all quarters and months analyzed, with R2 values of 0.75–0.78, and root mean square errors (RMSE) between 20.6 and 22.0 Mg C ha-1. A total of 7.138 Pg C was estimated for Peru with annual ACE of 20.08 Tg C between the third quarters of 2017 and 2018, respectively, or 23.4% higher than estimates from the FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment. Analyzed quarterly, the spatial evolution of ACE revealed 11.5 Tg C, 6.6 Tg C, 8.6 Tg C, and 10.1 Tg C lost between the third quarters of 2017 and 2018. Moreover, our monthly analysis for the dry season reveals the evolution of ACE at unprecedented temporal detail. We discuss environmental controls over ACE and provide a spatially explicit tool for enhanced forest carbon management at scale.

Combining Sample Designs to Account for the Whole Necromass Carbon Stock in Brazilian Atlantic Forest

ABSTRACT Necromass is crucial to understanding both carbon and nutrient cycling throughout the forest. In this study, we assessed the carbon stock and spatial distribution of necromass components in an Atlantic rainforest, southern Brazil, one hotspot of biodiversity. Necromass comprised: standing dead trees and stumps (SWN), large-sized woody necromass (LWN), medium-sized woody necromass (MWN), and litter (LTR). Specific sample designs assessed each component, while the Payandeh index indicated spatial distribution. Mean wood densities of LWN ranged from 0.24 to 0.46 g.cm−3, and mean carbon fraction ranged from 0.42 to 0.44 gC.g−1 d.m. depending on decay class. The total necromass carbon stock was 12.83 MgC.ha−1. SWN, LWN, MWN, and LTR carbon stores were 3.15, 4.24, 1.50, and 3.53 MgC.ha−1, respectively. LWN and MWN showed a reverse J-curve skewed carbon stock distribution and clumped spatial pattern. LTR presented asymmetric distribution and a random spatial pattern. Coarse and heavy necromass is clumped near dead trees, while the wind scatters fine necromass throughout the forest. This study provides useful information to the understanding of the carbon cycle in Atlantic rainforests and may be helpful to improve the Brazilian Inventory of Anthropogenic Emissions and Removals of Greenhouse Gases and the Global Forest Resource Assessment.

The State of British Columbia’s Forests: A Global Comparison

The Forest Resources Assessment 2015 is a comprehensive dataset from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), which provides the opportunity to explore some of the emerging topics related to sustainable forest management. This paper assesses how forests in British Columbia, Canada, compare globally on several key sustainable forest management parameters in four domains—biophysical indicators and legal framework, management plans, data management, and stakeholder involvement. The comparison was done against eight jurisdictions, namely Australia, China, Japan, the European Union, New Zealand, the Russian Federation and the USA. To accomplish our objectives, country-specific data on sustainable forest management parameters were extracted from the 2015 FAO’s Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA). Data specific to B.C. were sourced from Canada’s National Forest Inventory, and National Forest Database. Our results showed that British Columbia (B.C.) has one of the highest proportions of land covered with forests (57%) among all jurisdictions. The total forest area in B.C. has remained stable at around 55 million ha. The current rate of deforestation (6200 ha per year) is among the lowest in all jurisdictions. Data on the extent of primary forests in B.C. is unavailable. However, 22.6 million ha (41% of B.C.′s forests) have been classified as old growth forests (using a definition unique to B.C.). B.C. is the leading provincial forest producer by volume, and produced 67.97 million m3 of roundwood in 2015. With approximately 11 billion m3 of standing timber, roundwood production volume has held steady since 1990. In British Columbia, the National Forest Inventory—British Columbia Program (NFI-B.C.) is used to track and monitor the current status of the forests. It involves both ground plots and remote sensing. The most recent B.C. State of the Forests is one of the most comprehensive reports among all jurisdictions, using 24 topic areas, with each topic comprising several indicators of sustainable forest management. We conclude that British Columbia ranks high among other jurisdictions on several key sustainable forest management parameters with legislation and forest management regimes aiming to meet the environmental, social and economic needs of current and future generations.

The State of British Columbia’s Forests: A Global Comparison

The Forest Resources Assessment 2015 is a comprehensive dataset from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), which provides the opportunity to explore some of the emerging topics related to sustainable forest management. This paper assesses how forests in British Columbia, Canada, compare globally on several key sustainable forest management parameters in four domains—biophysical indicators and legal framework, management plans, data management, and stakeholder involvement. The comparison was done against eight jurisdictions, namely Australia, China, Japan, the European Union, New Zealand, the Russian Federation and the USA. To accomplish our objectives, country-specific data on sustainable forest management parameters were extracted from the 2015 FAO’s Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA). Data specific to B.C. were sourced from Canada’s National Forest Inventory, and National Forest Database. Our results showed that British Columbia (B.C.) has one of the highest proportions of land covered with forests (57%) among all jurisdictions. The total forest area in B.C. has remained stable at around 55 million ha. The current rate of deforestation (6200 ha per year) is among the lowest in all jurisdictions. Data on the extent of primary forests in B.C. is unavailable. However, 22.6 million ha (41% of B.C.′s forests) have been classified as old growth forests (using a definition unique to B.C.). B.C. is the leading provincial forest producer by volume, and produced 67.97 million m3 of roundwood in 2015. With approximately 11 billion m3 of standing timber, roundwood production volume has held steady since 1990. In British Columbia, the National Forest Inventory—British Columbia Program (NFI-B.C.) is used to track and monitor the current status of the forests. It involves both ground plots and remote sensing. The most recent B.C. State of the Forests is one of the most comprehensive reports among all jurisdictions, using 24 topic areas, with each topic comprising several indicators of sustainable forest management. We conclude that British Columbia ranks high among other jurisdictions on several key sustainable forest management parameters with legislation and forest management regimes aiming to meet the environmental, social and economic needs of current and future generations.

Policy adoption, legislative developments, and implementation: the resulting global differences among countries in the management of biological resources

Policy adoption and implementation depend on a wide range of considerations that include the level of stakeholder participation and the choice of top-down or bottom-up approaches. The existence of a stakeholder participation platform is often seen as critical to facilitate both adoption and implementation of international treaties. However, it may not automatically lead to improved policy outcomes or legislative effectiveness. This study compares countries with and without stakeholder participation platforms for policy implementation and assesses whether there are differences in their management of biological resources. The study had two goals: (1) examining the adoption and implementation of public policies and legislation at national and local levels within countries; and (2) analyzing the differences between countries that have developed stakeholder participation platforms for sustainable forest management. Data were obtained from the Global Forest Resources Assessment Report 2015 of the Food and Agricultural Organization. Cross-tabulation and independent sample t test findings show strong relationships at higher levels of government between countries, but weak relationships at local levels. Significant differences are observed at all levels. These results shed light on the severe challenges that governments face in adopting global environmental policies and passing them down to local levels for implementation. The study concludes that although excellent policies and regulations may exist, they often do not lead to significantly better outcomes at all levels of government.

What Happened to the Forests of Sierra Leone?

The last National Forest Inventory of Sierra Leone took place more than four decades ago in 1975. There appears to be no legal definition of “forest” in Sierra Leone and it is sometimes unclear whether reports are referring to the forest as a “land use” or a “land cover”. Estimates of forest loss in the Global Forest Resource Assessment Country Reports are based on the estimated rate during the period 1975 to 1986, and this has not been adjusted for the effects of the civil war, economic booms and busts, and the human population doubling (from about three million in 1975 to over seven million in 2018). Country estimates as part of the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Global Forest Assessment for 2015 aggregate several classes that are not usually considered as “forest” in normal discourse in Sierra Leone (for example, mangrove swamps, rubber plantations and Raphia palm swamps). This paper makes use of maps from 1950, 1975, and 2000/2 to discuss the fate of forests in Sierra Leone. The widely accepted narrative on forest loss in Sierra Leone and generally in West Africa is that it is rapid, drastic and recent. We suggest that the validity of this narrative depends on how you define “forest”. This paper provides a detailed description of what has happened, and at the same time, offers a different view on the relationship between forests and people than the ideas put forward by James Fairhead and Melissa LeachIf we are going to progress the debate about forests in West Africa, up-to-date information and the involvement of all stakeholders are needed to contribute to the debate on what to measure. Otherwise, the decades-old assumption that the area of forest in Sierra Leone lies between less than 5% and more than 75%, provides an error margin that is not useful. This, therefore, necessitates a new forest inventory.

Mapping mangrove forest cover using Landsat-8 imagery, Sentinel-2, Very High Resolution Images and Google Earth Engine algorithm for entire Cambodia

Currently there is limited information to estimate accurate and reliable mangrove forest area in Cambodia. Previous estimates did not explicitly illustrate the spatial distribution of mangrove for the entire country however, according to Global Forest Resource Assessment 2010, Cambodia’s mangrove area cover in 1990 and 2010 was calculated at 79,638 ha and 55,704 ha, respectively using extrapolation of 1992-1996 (original data from Remote Sensing of forest cover 1992/93 and 1996/97) for 1990 and extrapolation of 1996-2002 (original data from Remote Sensing of forest cover 1996/97 and 2002) for 2010. This study mapped the spatial distribution of Cambodia’s mangrove forest derived from 30 m × 30 m spatial resolution and polygon spatial extent from Landsat 8 (L8) image. Publicly available Landsat data was acquired from Google Earth Engine (GEE) Explorer including the Landsat Surface Reflectance-Landsat 8 (L8) OLI/TIRS; Top-Of-Atmosphere (TOA) L8 32-Day Reflectance Composite; Landsat Archive Pre-Collection from US Geological Survey (USGS, 2015); VHR Google-derived images (Collin et al. 2014) and field data collection from 63 plots representing the entire Cambodia of Surface Water Ambient Monitoring Program (SWAMP) to create a Google Fusion Table aiming at mapping the spatial resolution and extent. Random Forest (RF) Classifier, a supervised classification technique, was applied to three L8 images Archive Pre-Collection Level-1 (L8 OLI/TIRS) collected in December 2014, February 2015 and April 2015. Statistical analysis indicates the total area of mangrove forest cover reached 73,240ha with overall classification accuracy of 98.2%, 97.9% and 99.5% for three periods and the validation overall accuracy were 91.5%, 89.1% and 97.6%, respectively. Our findings suggest that L8 imagery and Google Earth Engine algorithm can be used to estimate area changes of mangrove forests in Cambodia with higher accuracy. The results of this study may be useful to assist decision making in planning for mangrove ecosystem restoration activities, evaluation of ecological services and in better estimation of carbon stock in mangrove forest. (Tier 1- default emission or Tier 3- plot data are more related to emission factor).

Four decades of land cover and forest connectivity study in Zambia—An object-based image analysis approach

Land cover dynamics in the tropical dry environments of sub-Saharan Africa are not well understood compared to humid environments, especially on a national scale. Previous studies describing land cover in the dry tropics are spatially or temporally constrained. This study presents the first long-term (1972–2016) nationwide land cover dynamics and forest connectivity analyses for Zambia. We employed 300 Landsat images and an object-based image analysis (OBIA) approach with the Random Forests (RF) classifier to map nine land covers at six time steps (1972, 1984, 1990, 2000, 2008 and 2016). Post-classification change detection was used to understand the dynamics, while landscape metrics were derived to assess the forest structural connectivity. Overall accuracies ranging from 79 to 86% were achieved. In 1972, 48% of Zambia was covered by primary forest and 16% was covered by secondary forest. By 2016, 62.74% of Zambia had undergone changes, with primary forest decreasing by 32% and secondary forest increasing by 23%. Our results showed that forests have been recovering by 0.03 to 1.3% yr−1 (53, 000–242, 000 ha yr-1); however, these rates are markedly lower than deforestation rates (- 0.54 to - 3.05% yr-1: 83, 000–453, 000 ha yr-1). Annual rates of change varied by land cover, with irrigated crops having the largest increase (+ 3.19 yr-1) and primary forest having the greatest decrease (-2.48% yr-1). Forest connectivity declined by 22%, with primary forest having the greatest decline, while the connectivity for secondary and plantation forest increased. We showed here that land cover in Zambia is highly dynamic with high rates of change, low forest recovery and decline in forest connectivity. These findings will aid in land use planning, reporting for the forthcoming 2020 Global Forest Resources Assessment, and carbon accounting, especially under the reduction in carbon emissions from deforestation and degradation programme (REDD+).

Effect of differential forest management on land-use change (LUC) in a tropical hill forest of Malaysia

Forest ownership is considered as a vital aspect for sustainable management of forest and its associated biodiversity. The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015 reported that privately owned forest area are increasing on a global scale, but deforestation was found very active in privately owned hill forest areas of Malaysia. Penang State was purposively chosen as it has been experiencing rapid and radical changes due to urban expansion over the last three decades. In this study, analyses of land-use changes were done by PCI Geomatica using Landsat images from 1991 to 2015, future trends of land-use change were assessed using EXCEL forecast function, and its impact on the surrounding environment were conducted by reviewing already published articles on changing environment of the study area. This study revealed an annual deforestation rate of 1.4% in Penang Island since 1991. Trend analysis forecasted a forest area smaller than the current forest reserves by the year 2039. Impact analysis revealed a rapid biodiversity loss with increasing landslides, mudflows, water pollution, flash flood, and health hazard. An immediate ban over hill-land development is crucial for overall environmental safety.

Moving beyond the concept of "primary forest" as a metric of forest environment quality.

The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has been reporting country-level area in primary forests in its Global Forest Resource Assessment since 2005. The FAO definition of a primary forest (naturally regenerated forest of native species where there are no clearly visible indications of human activities and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed) is generally accepted as authoritative and is being used in policy making. However, problems with this definition undermine our capacity to obtain globally coherent estimates. In addition, the current reporting on primary forests fails to consider the complementarily of non-primary forests toward the maintenance of ecosystem services. These issues undermine the appropriate tracking of changes in primary and non-primary forests, and the assessment of impacts of such changes on ecosystem services. We present the case for an operational reconsideration of the primary forest concept and discuss how alternatives or supplements might be developed.

Effect of differential forest management on biodiversity in a tropical hill forest of Malaysia and implications for conservation

Forest ownership is considered as vital for sustainable management of forest and its associated biodiversity. The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015 reported an increasing rate of privately owned forests on a global scale. However, deforestation was found to be very active in privately owned hill forest areas of Malaysia. Three forest reserves and three adjacent private forests from Penang State was purposively chosen as this state has been experiencing a quick and radical changes due to urban expansion over the last three decades. In this study variation in biodiversity were measured using community structure of both vascular plants and avifauna species along selected micro environmental variables. Finally implications for conservation were proposed considering the current state of deforestation in private hill forest (PHF). Plant community and avifauna analysis revealed that government hill forest areas (GHF) were more diverse and healthier than PHF, also rich with higher evenness. Species richness between GHF and PHF showed significant difference in plant species (p < 0.05) but not for avifauna. Avifauna diversity analysis recorded higher abundance of birds in PHF and finally appeared as buffer service provider for avifauna diversity in GHF reserves. But the current rate of deforestation in PHF is 1.4% annually. Thus any alteration to hill forest cover (land development activities) should be banned immediately with intensive care to the PHF through co-management. Moreover human activities inside the GHF should also be controlled to conserve the remnant species of the island as conspicuous disturbance were also found inside GHF.

Opening Letter

Opening Letter