Global Environment Facility Research Articles

Is the emphasis on cofinancing good for environmental multilateral funds?

International environmental and development agencies increasingly emphasize external cofinancing when selecting projects to fund. This paper considers whether the emphasis on cofinancing helps promote institutional objectives, or creates perverse and inefficient incentives. We present a model of project selection that can apply to any funding agency, but focus on environmental multilateral funds and climate change. We show that introducing cofinancing objectives to a fund that seeks to maximize its immediate environmental impact is redundant as best, and more likely counterproductive. We test implications of our model using project-level data from two of the leading environmental multilateral funds, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Green Climate Fund (GCF). While tradeoffs exist between emission reductions and cofinancing, we find that they are not strong enough to imply that current cofinancing preferences are diminishing the environmental benefits that funds can claim. However, we also find that the emphasis on cofinancing in project selection is likely to be globally inefficient, as projects with greater cofinancing ratios tend to yield smaller emission reductions per gross dollar spent. This finding should sound a note of caution given the overall scarcity of financial resources available to achieve global climate goals.

Customised Methodology to Assess and Measure Effectiveness of Integrated Landscape Management Relevant Multi-Stakeholder Transformative Governance, Incorporating Rights-Based Planning and Tenure Aspects, Applied in Kenya, Nigeria, and Viet Nam

Different thinking and strategies are needed to transform our food systems at different scales. Food systems can be changed towards a more sustainable path through multi-stakeholder transformative governance at the landscape level because that is where national-level visions, objectives, and policies meet with local practice, priorities, and actions. Concrete and practical guidance on how to effectively put a multi-stakeholder transformative governance process into practice is missing. Through the Global Environment Facility (GEF) funded ‘Food Systems, Land Use and Restoration Impact Programme’, led by the World Bank, countries are supported in integrated landscape management (ILM) to ensure that production systems are embedded within wider landscapes to safeguard the natural capital and ecosystem services on which they depend. A customised methodology to assess and measure the effectiveness of ILM-relevant multi-stakeholder transformative governance, incorporating rights-based planning and tenure aspects, has been developed that makes governance explicit in the ILM process. This methodology aims to improve landscape-level institutional coordination, coherence, and collaboration through enhanced horizontal and vertical coordination and network dynamics. The conceptual framework of the customised methodology and how to operationalise it are explained and illustrated with the application in the country projects in Kenya, Nigeria, and Viet Nam. Making transformative governance explicit within the ILM process at the landscape level will require investments in time and capabilities, but allows governance to act as a catalyst towards more sustainable pathways.

COVID-19 Pandemic and Sustainable Urban Transformation: Perspectives on City-Level Actions and a Framework for the Future

Cities were at the center of the COVID-19 pandemic due to the concentration of affected populations and economic activities that needed to be revived to support global recovery. While cities offer strong economic and social benefits due to density, proximity, and global connectivity, the pandemic had a tremendous impact on their vital functions. It resulted in lost lives and livelihoods and deepened economic and social divides. Furthermore, the pandemic exacerbated many existing environmental challenges in cities. This presented an opportunity to tackle these interlinked challenges in an integrated manner. Evidence suggests that many city leaders integrated environmental sustainability as an important element to complement their emergency responses. Drawing from experiences in cities around the world, particularly those participating in the Sustainable Cities Program supported by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), this paper describes how integrated solutions were applied to tackle the COVID-19 pandemic. Consistent with a Healthy Planet Healthy People concept, a framework is proposed for sustainable urban transformation and to build cities that are resilient to shocks and stresses. With global environmental benefits at the core, the framework highlights the importance of integration, inclusion, and innovation as key approaches in steering the future green growth and prosperity of cities.

Legal regulation of the use of forest resources

The purpose of the study was to carry out a comprehensive analysis of the legislative framework in the field of forest resource management in Albania in the context of forest ecology, and species diversity, and to identify the main problems and prospects for sustainable development of the country’s forestry. The research methodology included the analysis of statistical data from the National Institute of Statistics of Albania on the structure of forest ecosystems and forms of their management. The results of studies conducted by international organizations such as the World Bank, Global Environment Facility, and Oikon d.o.o. were also used. The structure and composition of Albania’s forest resources, including those of natural and semi-natural origin, are analysed. The legal framework in the field of forest management in Albania is summarized. Different management structures for forestry land are characterized, with the identification of the specifics of use for different forms of ownership. The main problems of forest management are identified, including intensive exploitation of private forests, lack of subsidies and investments, as well as imperfect legislative regulation. Adaptation measures to increase the sustainability of Albania’s forests within the framework of the Albanian Forest Policy Document for the period 2019-2030 are substantiated. Strategic areas of development, such as the expansion of protected areas, the development of ecotourism and the attraction of green investments, are proposed. The study also emphasizes the importance of international cooperation for financial and technical support, which will facilitate the implementation of sustainable forest management practices and biodiversity conservation. The practical significance of the study is that these results can be used to develop strategic directions for the development of the forest sector in Albania, aimed at ensuring sustainable management and conservation of forest resources, which is a key factor for the country’s economic and environmental well-being

Quantitative Soil Quality Assessment by Using Visual Soil-Field Assessment Tools (VS-FAST)

Unplanned land use reflects the changes from agricultural to urbanization and decreasing of green spaces in cities and agricultural lands surrounding cities. The Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI), Dry Bare - Soil Index (DBSI) and Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) indices were derived to evaluate the rate of the land use/cover changes due to uncontrolled urban sprawl for the years 2001 and 2020. Field indicators were also used to assess soil properties’ degradation by using Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands (LADA) under the FAO Global Environment Facility (GEF) project. A set of 30 soil samples were randomly collected from two locations: unplanned built-up and vegetated sites in Babil Governorate, Iraq. The results showed that soil texture and salinity were the most varied indicators. The poorer areas (unplanned urban areas) were low and assessed as poor quality, while the vegetated site was assessed as moderate quality with high total score values. The findings from spectral indices show a significant rise in the built-up land use/cover category, expanding from 10.367 square kilometres in 2001 to 50.883 square kilometres in 2020. In contrast, the areas of bare-soils and vegetated decreased from 29.29 and 35.474 square kilometres in 2001 to 12.511 and 19.601 square kilometres in 2020, respectively. Various analytical techniques proved instrumental in distinguishing the different land use/cover categories in this research.

Biogas Energy: Unexplored Source of a Renewable Energy in Jordan

Jordan is a non-oil producing country. Its basic energy requirements are obtained from imported oil and natural gas from different sources. Domestic natural gas covers only 4% of the Kingdom’s energy needs. Energy import costs create a financial burden on the national economy. Jordan spends more than 25% of its GDP on the purchase of energy. Considerable efforts have been made and great progress has been achieved in the application of solar, wind, biogas and hydro energy utilization. This paper explores the potential of biogas as renewable energy in developing countries including Jordan, where access to basic clean energy services is essential for sustainable development. A techno–economic feasibility study for electric power generation from municipal solid waste was carried out in cooperation with the UNDP and the UN Global Environmental Facility has approved the award to finance a pilot biogas plant at Amman municipal waste disposal site. The project rated capacity is 1MW and due to the successful operation, the project was expanded to 3.5MW.

Evaluating site selection at design in food systems interventions: A formative geospatial approach

Within international development, formative evaluation is becoming increasingly important to make rapid assessments of project design and support adaptive learning in early implementation of ongoing interventions. Such evaluation is critical for institutions with short funding cycles, which need early evidence to assess the utility of new initiatives to inform donors’ decision-making for upcoming funding cycles. However, obtaining quantitative evidence is difficult in formative evaluation as results are not yet available or visible early in the project cycle. Geospatial multi-criteria suitability analysis provides one method for evaluating the relevance of program and project design through creating a quantitative spatial index, combining data on several spatial indicators to evaluate project site selection and help inform future priority geographies. This study demonstrates the use of such a geospatial analysis in the formative evaluation of the Global Environment Facility’s food systems integrated programs.

Integrating wastewater reuse into water management schemes of Caribbean SIDS: A Trinidad and Tobago case study

Abstract Integrating Wastewater Reuse (WWRU) into national Water Management Schemes (WMS) is crucial as Small Island Developing States (SIDS) attempt to cope with water resource constraints in a changing climate. In 2022, the Global Environment Facility Caribbean Regional Fund (GEF CReW+) on Wastewater Management, the Ministry of Public Utilities (MPU), Trinidad and Tobago and the Trinidad and Tobago Bureau of Standards (TTBS) spearheaded the development of a national voluntary standard for treated wastewater reuse focused on agricultural and landscaping uses. During the process, the MPU conducted a Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices (KAP) and Willingness to Pay (WTP) assessment to inform the standard and subsequent implementation. Results indicated `good' knowledge on wastewater and WWRU (59.3%), however attitudes and practices were considered `poor'. Inferential Statistics performed on numerically coded survey response data revealed no statistically significant relation with the demographic factors assessed; 84.1% of respondents were willing to use treated wastewater with health concerns identified as the main barrier; 27.3% of respondents were willing to pay the same price as conventional water, while 31.2% were willing to pay 25 -50% less. This assessment can inform the implementation and pricing process and provide valuable insights to increase the uptake of WWRU in the region.

4. Global Environment Facility (GEF)

4. Global Environment Facility (GEF)

Habitat conversion intensifies human elephant conflicts in the Eastern Wildlife Corridor, Ghana

Ghana was ranged by fairly large herds of elephants up until the 1970s (Douglas-Hamilton 1979). At one time elephants were found throughout the country but, as elsewhere on the continent, elephant habitat contracted during the 20th century. Today both the African savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana) and the African forest elephant (L. cyclotis) are still found, respectively, in the savannah and forest zones of Ghana. However, the populations are now confined to a few Protected Areas (PAs) and isolated remnant habitats, mainly due to human population pressure and related land use and land cover changes (AfESG 2000). Elephants are also killed illegally by poachers for the ivory trade, which dates back to ancient times (Parker 1973). By 2000, there were only eleven elephant population ranges in the country, with an estimated population of 1,000–2,000 individuals (WD 2000). These trends call for drastic and far-reaching elephant conservation efforts, including effective anti-poaching measures with more supportive legislation, and community-based land-use planning to foster harmonious human–elephant coexistence (HECx) in the country. Ghana has exhibited zeal for the conservation of the African elephant, both domestically and on the international front. Ghana was the first country to propose listing of African elephants in Appendix 1 of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). The country is also signatory to other international conventions, including the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), among others. In July 2008, Ghana entered into a bilateral cooperation agreement in the form of a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the Republic of Burkina Faso for the purpose of conserving natural resources shared by the two countries, including savannah elephants. In 2000, the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission of Ghana, in collaboration with the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and IUCN’s African Elephant Specialist Group (AfESG), developed an Elephant Conservation Strategy as a guide to ensure the conservation and survival of viable elephant populations and their habitats throughout the country. This strategy informed studies conducted of elephant migratory corridors by the Northern Savannah Biodiversity Conservation Project (NSBCP), under the auspices of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the World Bank, between 2002 and 2009. These studies identified two main elephant migratory routes between Burkina Faso and northern Ghana, which were designated the Eastern and Western Wildlife Corridors (EWWC). The forests and wildlife in the corridors are jointly managed by the Forest Services Division (FSD) and Wildlife Division (WD) of the Forestry Commission. This article provides a summary description of the EWWC, presents data on human–elephant conflict in the Eastern Wildlife Corridor, and discusses approaches to mitigate conflicts and ensure the survival of the elephant population in the corridor.

Evaluating low-carbon economic peer effects of green finance and ICT for sustainable development: a Chinese perspective.

With the adoption of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris Climate Agreement, ADB's involvement should not be ignored. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) and ADB have teamed up to provide climate change financing for developing countries. Included in this is climate protection finance, the financing method that offers cash to assist the region in achieving ecological responsibility. Using a systematic framework, the researchers in this study examined the rationale for building a cohort result of green management in China in the new phase of the country's development. As part of a multiplicative framework, the long-term correlation between variables is quantified using the dynamic common correlated effect (D-CCE) and interactive fixed effect. According to the findings, renewable energy and green financing are good environmental indicators. Environmental degradation is negatively affected by green governance. Some people are concerned about how to dispose of ICT, yet on the other side, ICT can help cut carbon emissions with new clean technologies. Moreover, the findings show that urbanization and per capita income increase carbon emissions. The results suggest that Chinese officials need to support reducing carbon emissions through the development of ICT infrastructure, green financing, and renewable energy.

Costa Rican wetlands vulnerability index

Costa Rica comprises approximately 6% of the world’s biodiversity. Among these lush ecosystems, wetlands are represented in mangrove forests near the sea, along river lowlands, sedimentary and volcanic mountains, and highland páramo landscapes. In 2018, the Ministry of Environment and Energy (MINAE), through the National System of Conservation Areas (SINAC), the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) carried out the new National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) which identified 10,699 wetland polygons. This assessment collected key information such as location, characteristics of the wetland, land use in the vicinity, threats, and other generalities. Based on these valuable results, we propose a wetland Vulnerability Index composed of a Condition Index and a Hazard Index to determine the different vulnerability conditions of each wetland unit. Our findings provide a better comprehension of the status of wetlands in Costa Rica with an environmental geography perspective. Located in a climate change hotspot, Costa Rica’s conservation policies and actions should consider how to manage the most vulnerable wetlands at different scales. This methodology can improve and generate regional and national wetlands inventories as a basis for evidence-based decision making in other latitudes.

4. Global Environment Facility (GEF)

4. Global Environment Facility (GEF)

From international organizations to local governments: how foreign environmental aid reaches subnational beneficiaries in Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico

ABSTRACT The fight against climate change increasingly connects International Organizations (IOs), national governments, and subnational governments. How are international funds to fight climate change and environmental degradation distributed to subnational beneficiaries? We develop a novel multilevel theory that poses that tension between the preferences of the IO and national governments helps explain the subnational distribution of environmental aid – even more than pure environmental or social need. Simply put, whomever contributes more to IO-sponsored green projects determines who gets funds at the subnational level. While we understand that both actors have multiple preferences associated with green aid allocation, our theory of multilevel fund allocation expects the IO to prioritize provinces and states with low-development. Conversely, national governments will prioritize domestic electoral interests. We test this theory with a new data from the largest international donor of environmental aid, the Global Environment Facility. Empirically, we focus on Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico between 1997 and 2017.

Strengthening Health Systems for Climate Adaptation and Health Security: Key Considerations for Policy and Programming.

Strengthening Health Systems for Climate Adaptation and Health Security: Key Considerations for Policy and Programming.

Evaluating the scaling potential of sustainable land management projects in the Sahelian Great Green Wall countries

The Great Green Wall (GGW) Initiative aims at combatting land degradation while achieving socio-economic development across the Sahel through a mosaic of sustainable land management (SLM) and restoration practices. As the Global Environment Facility (GEF) is the main funding mechanism for land degradation neutrality related projects, we have analyzed its previous SLM projects in four pilot countries in an effort to assess their capacity to foster scaling of interventions and fast track progress towards the GGW objectives. We developed a literature-based scaling evaluation framework and scoring methods to harmonize the GEF agency based project ratings in terms of performance and persistence along seven evaluation domains. We found that projects perform better over time particularly in terms of monitoring, financing and resilience to shocks but are overall only moderately likely to achieve benefits persistent over time, which is necessary to allow for the scaling of interventions. While these efforts should be maintained and further pursued, we also recommend special attention to be placed on a number of interventions that are often less successful or ignored by projects such as enforcing mechanisms for new SLM regulations, empowering vulnerable groups and ensuring sufficient capacity and finances for sustaining achievements even during periods of political or climatic instability.

Spatial Modelling for Landscape Ecological Carbon at Central Forest Spine (CFS) Corridors in Peninsular Malaysia

The Improving Connectivity in the Central Forest Spine (IC-CFS) is funded by the Malaysian Government (GOM) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF). The IC-CFS main objective is to re-establish, maintain, and improve the connectivity within the corridors and create linkages between the fragmented forests. The carbon stock assessment component is required to evaluate the corridors. The study was conducted at Primary Linkages in Pahang (C-PL1), A-PL1 in Perak, and J-PL2 in Johor, with an extent of 4,355 ha, 24,759 ha, and with 6,791 ha, respectively. The Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) tool was applied for assessing the carbon stock within these landscapes together with satellite images between the years 2010 and 2020 to produce land use classifications. Carbon stock in J-PL2 indicated depletion by -592,599 Mg C over ten years. On the other hand, C-PL1 and A-PL1 indicated an increase amounted 22,129 and 695,689 Mg C, respectively. These changes evidenced that the land use activities were influenced directly and significantly by the fluctuations of carbon stock, i.e., absorption and emission within the corridors. Conclusively, the InVEST tool is practical for carbon assessment, management, and conservation planning to ensure the connectivity and sustainability of CFS corridors in Peninsular Malaysia.

Trends in elephant poaching in the Mid‐Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe: Lessons learnt and future outlook

Trends in elephant poaching in the <scp>Mid‐Zambezi</scp> Valley, Zimbabwe: Lessons learnt and future outlook

From Theory to Practice: The Student Experience Evaluating Development Projects Focused on Nature-Based Solutions

Graduate students often seek hands-on experiences in the international development field. Given that Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) provide hundreds of billions of dollars in aid each year, we expected that reviewing the design, implementation, and outcomes of their environmental projects would provide valuable learning outcomes for students. This novel study on Nature-based Solutions (NbS) in the Global Environment Facility (GEF) gave students the opportunity to engage directly with practitioners in the review of 50 environmental projects across 45 countries. A team of professionals from the Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP) of the GEF and eight students from the University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability and the University of Maryland School of Public Policy developed lessons learned from reviewing the GEF portfolio over a twenty-year time span. When screening projects for enabling conditions including theory of change, climate risk screening, multi-stakeholder engagement, and adaptive management, most had stronger explanations of the environmental than the social outcomes sought, and only more recent ones incorporated climate risk screening. The process and findings associated with this educational experience contributed to students’ climate change leadership development; for example, by learning about the tradeoffs and possible co-benefits of improving both environmental conditions and livelihoods in less developed countries. Our research led to practice advice for the design of future GEF projects, as well as ideas for future coursework to further bridge the gap between theory and practice in academia, which we believe to be essential to preparing the next generation of climate leaders.

Dynamics of Carbon Stock at Selected Primary Linkages of Central Forest Spine (CFS) Corridors in Peninsular Malaysia

The Improving Connectivity of the Central Forest Spine Project (IC-CFS) under the United Nations of Development Programme (UNDP) funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Malaysian Government (GOM) is aimed at increasing capacity at the Federal and State level to execute the CFS Master Plan. Currently there are 37 CFS corridors that have been identified and prescribed in the CFS Master Plan. Out of this, 17 corridors are classified as Primary Linkages (PL) and 20 as Secondary Linkages (SL), with amounted a total extent of 507,976 ha. The study areas involved three PL corridors, which summing a total area of 35,905 ha, which are PL-1 in Pahang (4,355 ha), PL-2 in Perak (24,759 ha) and PL-3 in Johor (6,791 ha). Accurate assessment and efficient management of these corridors landscape require a systematic geospatial tool. The Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) tool, developed by the Natural Capital Project were chosen to assess the carbon dynamics at the study areas particularly using Carbon model to determine ecosystem services and trade-offs between past (year 2010) and current (year 2020) landuse pattern in the study areas. The study found that there are changes of landuse within the corridors and thus resulted in the changes of carbon stock (C) within the ten years period. PL-1 and PL-2 showed positive increases of 23,690.34 and 830,818.10 Mg C, respectively. However, the other corridor, i.e., PL-3 indicated depletion of C at -523,484.89 Mg C between 2010 and 2020. These fluctuations were due to the conversion of forests to other land use types. Areas that indicated increased in C were undergoing protective actions and conserved the remaining forests within the corridors. The results were presented in spatially distributed maps together with the magnitude of changes. The study also discussed the potential of the InVEST tools in supporting decision making and conservation efforts in CFS and other landscapes in Peninsular Malaysia.