Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy Research Articles

Issues and Perspectives on Cyberterrorism and Information Security in Nigeria

The advent of information and communication technology (ICT) and the internet in Nigeria offer endless opportunities and also raise a lot of concerns bothering on cybercrime, cyberterrorism, information and human security. Recently, Nigeria has experienced an unprecedented surge in cybercrime, with potentially disastrous consequences for the country's socioeconomic and sustainable growth. Consequently, the complexities and horrific nature of cyberterrorism in recent times have increased proportionately which calls for prompt action. This study therefore, examines the effects of cyberterrorism on information and human security in Nigeria. Anchored on the technology-enabled crime and risk society theory and integrative literature review approach, the study revealed that, aside from the fact that information security is important for the continued existence of individuals, organisations and government in Nigeria, different terrorist and secessionist groups in Nigeria such as Boko Haram have been using the Nigeria’s cyberspace to mobilize and train its members, raise funds as well as propagate their nefarious agenda. The study however recommends among many things that, the Nigerian government should strengthen the Cybercrime Prohibition and Prevention Act 2015 while also ensuring the establishment of strong legal, institutional and security frameworks in line with the United Nations Security Council Resolution 2341 (2017) and the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (GCTS) in order to fight cyberterrorism in Nigeria.

Universal international legal framework to support of victims of terrorism

The article describes the provisions of international legal acts on support and protection of the rights of victims of terrorism (UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, UN GA resolutions, Good Practices in Supporting Victims of Terrorism within the Criminal Justice Framework, The Criminal Justice Response to Support Victims of Acts of Terrorism, the Handbook of Good Practices to Support Victims’ Associations in Africa and the Middle East, Model Legislative Provisions to Support the Needs and Protect the Rights of Victims of Terrorism etc.) It is indicated that the Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy and its attached Action Plan provide for the establishment of national assistance systems on a voluntary basis that will take into account the needs of victims of terrorism and their families and contribute to the normalisation of their lives. It is emphasised that the UN General Assembly reviews the Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy every two years, which makes it a living document linked to the priorities of member states in the fight against terrorism. In particular, in the Eighth Review of the Strategy (2023), the UN GA reaffirmed the role that victims of terrorism, including the role in disincentivising terrorism, stressing the need to promote international solidarity in support of victims of terrorism and to ensure their dignified and respectful treatment. It is pointed out that the resolutions adopted by the UN GA (72/165, 73/305) on victims of terrorism made it possible to lay a more solid foundation for intensifying the efforts of Member States to provide assistance to victims. It is emphasised the role of the UNODC in supporting victims of terrorism, under the auspices of which a number of acts have been developed containing strategies for building institutional capacity to involve victims of terrorism in investigations and prosecutions; national experience, programmes and legislation on supporting victims of terrorism are summarised. It is indicated that in 2022, the Model Legislative Provisions to Support the Needs and Protect the Rights of Victims of Terrorism were adopted, which are based on the international legal framework for victims of crimes and grave human rights violations and are intended to assist Member States in protecting the rights and addressing the needs of victims of terrorism in their national legislation.

Response of Kenya Security Forces to Terrorist Attacks in the Post-Westgate Period.

The article describes how Kenya, through its security forces, responded to significant terrorist attacks carried out by terrorist organization Al-Shabaab on the territory of Kenya alongside how those attacks contributed to the development of counter-terrorism measures. The measures are analyzed from a legislative, technical and security point of view. The article is based on a conceptual analysis of P.C. Sederberg, combined with the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy and argues that three significant terrorist attacks on Westgate in 2013, Garissa in 2015 and Dusit D2 in 2019 were key factors of the development and adoption of complex counter-terrorism measures. Those measures were based on the adoption of appropriate laws, development of the institutional structure and implementation of military and police counter-terrorism measures. However, changes were gradual, reactive instead of proactive. The country has learned to build the state’s capacity to combat terrorism but struggled with conflict prevention and respect for the rule of law. It succeeded with a build-up of counter-terrorism security forces able to respond effectively and on time. But, finding and eliminating the causes of the conflict, they were far behind. All three significant terrorist attacks showed the need for an appropriate combination of counter-terrorism measures. They cannot be put in use separately, otherwise, it can lead to unintended results.

Bridging the Norms of Counter-Terrorism and Responsibility to Protect: Countering the Proliferation and Activities of Armed Groups in Nigeria

Abstract How do we achieve the protection of vulnerable civilians from violent non-state actors in Nigeria? This article argues that despite the seemingly different approaches of Responsibility to Protect (r2p) and the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, both can align at an intrastate implementation level to protect exposed communities from armed groups. The UN’s adoption of a people-centric approach to counter-terrorism (ct) and the preventive measures against heinous crimes instituted in pillars one and two of r2p creates the space for this cooperation. This article further shows how practitioners can integrate both regimes with local networks to provide a holistic civilian protection strategy. This approach encompasses international, state, and local agency in halting the proliferation and activities of violent non-state groups. I espouse a framework for the protection of vulnerable Nigerian populations based on three factors – community self-protection, economic well-being, and ideological reorientation.

The un role in combating international terrorism: achievements and challenges

Terrorism continues to be an urgent international problem, despite a slight decrease in terrorist activity after the military defeat of ISIS * in Syria and Iraq. This article attempts to examine the main areas of the UN counter-terrorist activities in the 2000s. The authors have revealed the importance of the Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy for intensifying the combat against global terrorism. The content of the institutional reform of the system of UN organizations that counter terrorism is described in detail. A special focus is on the tasks and functions of the Counter-Terrorism Committee, the Counter-Terrorism Center, and the UN Counter-Terrorism Office. Special attention is paid to the analysis of some unresolved problems in the activities of the UN as the center of the combat against terrorism in the world.

TO THE QUESTION OF UNITED NATIONS COUNTER-TERRORISM ACTIVITIES

Abstract. The article is devoted to the study of a number of aspects of United Nations counter-terrorism activities in the current phase of globalization. Purpose: to analyze the problems directly related to the activities of the UN in the field of countering international terrorism, as well as the basic provisions of the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (2006). Methods: the study uses comparison, description, analogy, dialectical logic, interpretation of legal norms, content-analysis, synergistic method. Results: the study substantiates the main conclusion that UN counter-terrorism activities are a major factor in the maintenance of international peace and security, representing a synergy of efforts among UN bodies and system, aimed at countering and combating terrorism. The article identifies the problems that are hampering the progressive development and improvement of United Nations counter-terrorist activities at the present time. It is noted in particular that none of the universal international legal instruments against terrorism currently contains a clear definition of the concept of «international terrorism». This circumstance hinders the development and potential adoption of the UN Comprehensive Convention against International Terrorism, proposed at the time by the delegation of India. The author believes that this long-standing problem, which has been trying to be resolved for a quarter of a century in negotiations within the UN, is unlikely to be solved by the current generation of politicians and leaders: there are too many disagreements that lead to deadlock in the relevant negotiations. It is suggested that the institutional reform of the UN counter-terrorism architecture, aimed at strengthening the common approach to coordination and coherence in the UN system of counter-terrorism activities, launched by the new Secretary-General António Guterres in 2018, will be fruitfully continued in the near future.

Modern trends in the UN fight with international terrorism

The article examines the activities of the United Nations in the fight against international terrorism over a long period. The reasons preventing the formulation of the generally accepted definition of “international terrorism” are considered. The authors identified the main trends in the development of international terrorism, formed by the end of the XX – beginning of the XXI century. Special attention is paid to the reassessment of the danger of terrorism after the terrorist acts committed by Al-Qaeda in the United States on September 11, 2001. The analysis of changes in the conceptual and organizational approaches of the UN to the fight against terrorism is carried out. The authors conclude that the adoption of the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy in 2006 marked a new stage in the fight against international terrorism. The important features of modern terrorism that have led to changes in the tactics of international terrorist organizations, primarily Al-Qaeda and ISIS, are analyzed. The analysis of counter-terrorism actions of law enforcement agencies in Western Europe allowed the authors to formulate a conclusion about their insufficiency. The authors draw attention to the need to improve the anti-terrorist activities of states in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic and call on states to cooperate within the framework of the UN Global Compact for the Coordination of Counter-Terrorism Activities.

Understanding Systems - Extremism Nexus in Global South

The solution to every severe problem lies in diagnosing and addressing its root causes. The issue of extremism has a strong linkage with systems. When structures of systems get corrupt, people get affected because human mindsets are greatly subject to the performance of systems. There lies a hierarchy of methods. At the top, the international system has an overwhelming influence on world politics, creating an environment that globally affects people's individual and collective life. Below the international system, a country's economic, political, judicial, and educational systems are mainly responsible for making the mindset of people. The dilemma of the Global South (developing world) is that its systems have largely failed to properly deliver that are having consequences of extremism and frustration in the society in general and young people in particular. This paper explores the linkage between extremism and systems through a top-down approach. It attempts to answer critical questions like how methods collectively result in extremism in societies and how socioeconomic and political reasons lead to extremism. The paper finds that major powers influence world order and the international system in their competition for supremacy. This unhealthy competition at the top drives extremism among the population in the developing world. References Allan, Harriet Andrew Glazzard Sasha Jesperson Sneha Reddy-Tumu Emily Winterbotham, "Drivers of Violent Extremism: Hypotheses and Literature Review," October 2015, Royal United Services Institute (RUSI), p.6-7. State failure is a system failure. Austin, Beatrix and Hans J. Giessmann (eds)., "Transformative Approaches to Violent Extremism," Berghof Handbook Dialogue Series No. 13, p.iii. Bajoria, Ayshree, "Shoot the Traitors: Discrimination against Muslims under India's New Citizenship Policy," Report by Asia Division Human Rights Watch, April 2020. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/04/09/shoot-traitors/discrimination-against-muslims-under-indias-new-citizenship-policy Bezhan, Freud, "Ethnic Minorities are Fuelling the Taliban Expansion in Afghanistan," June 15, 2016. Available at: https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/06/15/ethnic-minorities-are-fueling-the-talibans-expansion-in-afghanistan/ haudhary, Muhammad Umair , et al. (2021). "Islamophobia In Western Media: A Study Of American Movies After 9/11" Journal of Peace, Development and Communication, vol. 5, Issue 1, 2021, pp. 143-150, https://doi.org/10.36968/JPDC-V05-I01-13 Graff, Corinne, "Poverty, Development and Violent Extremism in the Weak States," 2010, Brooking Institute, Washington, p.44-46. "Preventing Violent Extremism (PVE) through development," SIDA, December 2017, p.2. Available at: https://www.sida.se/globalassets/sida/eng/where-we-work/for-partners/s209461_thematicoverview_preventing_violent_extremism_webb-003_final.pdf Retting, Tim, "Belief Systems: What they are and how they affect you," December 7, 2017. Available at: https://medium.com/intercultural-mindset/belief-systems-what-they-are-and-how-they-affect-you-1cd87aa775ff Robinson, Nicholas and Catherine Lena Kelly, "Rule of Law Approaches to Countering Violent Extremism," ABA ROLI Rule of Law Issue Paper, May 2017, p.5 "The United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy," December 24, 2015. Available at: http://www.undp.org/content/dam/norway/undp-ogc/documents/SG%20PVE%20plan%20of%20action.pdf "Towards Inclusive Peace: Tackling different forms of violent Extremism," Caux Forum, July 2017, p.1. S. Agency for International Development, Guide to the Drivers of Violent Extremism (Washington, D.C., 2009). Zinchenko, Yury P., "Extremism from the perspective of a system approach," Psychology in Russia: State of the Art Volume 7, Issue 1, 2014, p.29.

Issues regarding the role of the united nations as a main institution in resolving international disputes

UN peacekeeping missions and special political missions are an essential tool for efforts to promote stability. Currently, the emphasis is on coherence and synergies, making effective and efficient use of the set of crisis response options. An unprecedented number of key UN assessments/reports call in unison for more efforts to prevent crises and seek political solutions. Preventive diplomacy and mediation efforts are intensified. The UN plays a key role in combating terrorism, including preventing violent extremism. The UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy includes a comprehensive set of measures that must be fully implemented, highlighting the increased involvement of the UN in maintaining a climate of stability and global order, so fragile and unstable in the context of new challenges and threats.

The role of the General Assembly of the United Nations in the sphere of implementation of the United Nations Global counter-terrorism strategy as a document of the «soft» international law

In the article the author discloses the role of the UN General Assembly in the sphere of implementation of the UN Global coun -ter-terrorism strategy as a document of the «soft» international law. The author examines the particularities of the elaboration, adoptionand reviewing of the Strategy and synthesizes the major provisions of this document and the resolutions of the General Assembly containingits reviews in the context of the adaptation, development and putting into practice of the Strategy. On this basis the author concludeson the essential input of the UN General Assembly into the process of the implementation of the Strategy.The author points out that the UN Global counter-terrorism strategy is a unique anti-terrorist international law document whichprovides comprehensive approach and universal legal regulation based on the «soft» obligations of the UN Member States. In theauthor’s view, the adoption of the Strategy in 2006 was a revolutionary step considering that at that stage only some separate aspectsof combating and preventing terrorism have been regulated in the resolutions of the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Counciland in the universal anti-terrorist treaties, and the Strategy has become the first document at the universal level which established a systemof multifaceted and interrelated measures of the global countering of terrorism and fixed the important main principles in this area.The author argues that the Strategy presents a dynamic, living instrument, the reviewing and updating of which, since 2008, havebeen assuring its adaptation to the new realities and needs in the sphere of the global countering of terrorism and the codification anddevelopment of the «soft» international law in this sphere. It is concluded that the UN General Assembly plays a key role in reviewingand keeping up to date of the four groups of measures contained in the Strategy aimed at combating and preventing terrorism, and inproviding the coordination and mobilization of the efforts of a wide range of subjects in its implementation, such as States, UN system,international organizations, civil society, private sector.The author also points out at a number of problematic aspects of legal and institutional nature which require particular attentionfrom the point of view of increasing the efficiency of the implementation of the Strategy.

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE UN INSTRUMENTS AGAINST TERRORIST FINANCING

Terrorist financing with its different modes has become a core area of interest for researchers and policy makers around the world. With the passage of time the troika of terrorist financing; money laundering as a means for financing terror; and transnational organized crime has become a new equation to be considered for possible eradication. As terrorist financing has assumed complexities worldwide, so has the global response for countering it gained more legal maturity. In 2006, the adoption of “Global Counter Terrorism Strategy” aimed at strategizing policies and actions for combating Terrorism and especially Terrorism Financing. In 2009, ‘International Convention for the Suppression of Financing of Terrorism’ largely filled the lacuna in identifying terrorist financing as a criminal offence. This paper is aimed at critically analyzing the different UN instruments for countering terrorist financing along with the challenges encountered in their implementation. It assesses that one of the most difficult aspects in countering terrorist financing remains the manner in which different UN Member States synchronize these instruments with their domestic legal framework. Another complicating factor remains the ever evolving complexity penetrating into terror financing.

Beijing Convention and Beijing Protocol. Changes in the International and Legal Model for Combatting Aviation Terrorism

The article deals with the issue of the Beijing reform of international criminal aviation law. The author analyses the relevant applicable international law and confronts it with the new legal regulations adopted at the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) conference in Beijing in 2010. As a result, the author states that the basic change involves the expansion of the catalogue of acts subject to criminalisation as well as the expansion of the circle of persons participating in or supporting actions involving the commission of acts that pose a threat to the safety of civil aviation; the system also specifies the responsibility of collective entities (the so-called ‘Al Qaeda’ clause). The author is deeply convinced that the development of the Tokyo-Hague-Montreal-Beijing system, which is part of the whole international legal system of combatting terrorism, including its financing, is fully justified. The new regulations also make this system more coherent. It is also worth adding that the adoption of the Beijing Convention and the Beijing Protocol is part of the implementation of the Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy adopted by the United Nations.

The Effectiveness of International Efforts in Combating Terrorism

This paper entitled “the effectiveness of International efforts in combatting terrorism” sets out to do an appraisal of already documented research works on the effectiveness of counter-terrorism initiatives. It makes use of classical literature review methods to synthesize these research recordings. This review visits major counter terrorist initiatives like the UN Counterterrorism Committee (CTC), the Counterterrorism Executive Directorate(CTED), Global Counterterrorism Strategy, and Group of Eight and in so doing generates evidence regarding the effectiveness of counter-terrorism strategies, making it clear that there has been a proliferation of anti-terrorism programs and policies as well as massive increases in expenditures toward combating terrorism. It however establishes that almost nothing is known about the effectiveness of any of these programs, as the surge in new terrorist tactics and incidents is on the rise. The paper concludes that these initiatives all bring something to the table, but fail to add up to a comprehensive regime. It is recommended primordially that the international community should develop a global counterterrorism body. Keywords: International efforts; Terrorism; Counterterrorism; Global strategy. DOI: 10.7176/IAGS/88-03 Publication date: November 30 th 2020

United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy and the need to improve the work to correct and re-educate persons convicted of religious terrorism

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Legal Regulation of Interaction of Security Service of Ukraine with Civil Society in Counteracting Terrorism

The relevance of the research is determined by the prerequisites for the rise in the levels of terrorist threats in Ukraine and the development of international terrorism. In response to these threats, the state creates protective mechanisms, increasing the level of protection of the population, since this is one of its main tasks. However, this system does not fully meet its objectives without cooperation with civil society. That is why, one of the current tasks is to unite the efforts of the state and civil society institutions in fighting against terrorism.
 Every citizen and civil society in the whole is a stakeholder and partner in the fight against terrorism. Citizens should be active participants. Therefore, the article provides a legal analysis of the interaction of the main agency in the state system of combating terrorist activity – the Security Service of Ukraine with civil society and clarifies the ways of implementing the state policy on counteracting terrorism.
 The comparative legal method of the study analyzes the source base of national law concerning the interaction of the Security Service of Ukraine with civil society in fighting against terrorism.
 The practical relevance of the study is determined by the ability to use the main points and conclusions of the study to further studies of the problems of the interaction of counter-terrorism actors with civil society.
 As a result of the analysis of the normative base on the interaction of the Security Service of Ukraine with civil society in fighting against terrorism, it can be stated about the state's efforts to implement the main points of the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy. In general, Ukraine's anti-terrorist system meets international standards in the field of counteracting terrorism. However, national legislation is the subject to improvement in the field of counteracting terrorism with the involvement of civil society institutions in eliminating the conditions and causes of terrorist activity.

United Nations and the Protection of Human Rights of Victims of Terrorism

Undoubtedly, Terrorism is a menace to World peace, security and cordial relationship between the States. United Nations has adopted several measures through different resolutions to prevent, and eliminate international terrorism, but in these measures, the rehabilitation of victims of terrorism had not given any importance. However, after the framing of the Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, the United Nation Organization has taken the initiative to support the victims of terrorism and encourage the States Members to form law and assistance scheme for the victims of terrorist activities. The objective of this paper is to ascertain the present issues relating to terrorism and analyze the initiatives made by the UN in the combating of international terrorism and Support to the victims of terrorism. For that purpose, the paper analyses the international instruments for the countering the terrorism and the initiative made by the different organ of the UN to provide support to the victims of terrorism. The paper also suggests solutions for the benefit of the fighting of terrorism and to provide protection to the basic human rights the victims of terrorism. Keywords: Terrorism, Victims of Terrorism, United Nations, Human Rights. DOI : 10.7176/JLPG/88-18 Publication date : August 31 st 2019

ETHNO-RELIGIOUS TERRORISM: ESSENCE, DIMENSIONS, CONCEPT

The objective of the article is to identify, describe, and explain the essence of terrorism as a general civilizational criminal phenomenon, the characteristics of dimensions of its reproduction and the formation of its concept on this basis. The results of the study provided the grounds for several conclusions. First, ethno-religious terrorism is manifested as a cultural phenomenon, a special segment of the inhumane discourse of hostility and aggressive social practices. It appears as a reaction to the systemic planetary crisis of managing economics, culture, consumption of natural resources, and becomes possible in the result of the massive loss of identity, fragmentation of the world-view. Secondly, we have established that the specified type of terrorism is a segment of aggressive and violent crime, in the collective and psychological basis of which there is the religious and ideological and/or ethnic domination in the systems of socio-political practice, which is achieved through intimidation as a result of committed murders, destruction or damage to property, objects of nature and offenses of a preventive nature (financial, human resources, information, and other provision). Thirdly, ethno-religious terrorism exists within three dimensions: individual (the act of sacrifice, catharsis), group (integration, social orientation) and general (administrative practice, political criminal activity, the postmodern phenomenon of the culture). The applied value of the study is that the suggested vision of the nature and dimensions of ethno-religious terrorism can be used to improve the systemic principles of counteracting its reproduction. The latter should be reflected in the improvement of the provisions of the United Nations Global Counterterrorism Strategy through the consolidation of a coherent, coordinated system of level differentiation of anti-terrorist activities’ directions and measures. We note that without changing the basic approaches within the cultural, political, and economic aspects of the interaction of nations and peoples of the world with regard to their diversity and parity, proper autonomy, without stopping the global tendency towards marginalization, it is impossible to effectively counteract to ethno-religious terrorism. Value/originality. The new vision of a complex, multidimensional nature of ethno-religious terrorism has been formed in the work. Its nature is grounded as a civilizational phenomenon reflected on the level of discourse, mass social practices, global managerial strategies. It forms an empirically grounded theoretical basis for increasing the effectiveness of counteracting ethno-religious terrorism in Europe and the world in the whole.

On the Risk Assessment of Terrorist Attacks Coupled with Multi-Source Factors

Terrorism has wreaked havoc on today’s society and people. The discovery of the regularity of terrorist attacks is of great significance to the global counterterrorism strategy. In this study, we improve the traditional location recommendation algorithm coupled with multi-source factors and spatial characteristics. We used the data of terrorist attacks in Southeast Asia from 1970 to 2016, and comprehensively considered 17 influencing factors, including socioeconomic and natural resource factors. The improved recommendation algorithm is used to build a spatial risk assessment model of terrorist attacks, and the effectiveness is tested. The model trained in this study is tested with precision, recall, and F-Measure. The results show that, when the threshold is 0.4, the precision is as high as 88%, and the F-Measure is the highest. We assess the spatial risk of the terrorist attacks in Southeast Asia through experiments. It can be seen that the southernmost part of the Indochina peninsula and the Philippines are high-risk areas and that the medium-risk and high-risk areas are mainly distributed in the coastal areas. Therefore, future anti-terrorism measures should pay more attention to these areas.

Understanding the dynamics of terrorism events with multiple-discipline datasets and machine learning approach.

Terror events can cause profound consequences for the whole society. Finding out the regularity of terrorist attacks has important meaning for the global counter-terrorism strategy. In the present study, we demonstrate a novel method using relatively popular and robust machine learning methods to simulate the risk of terrorist attacks at a global scale based on multiple resources, long time series and globally distributed datasets. Historical data from 1970 to 2015 was adopted to train and evaluate machine learning models. The model performed fairly well in predicting the places where terror events might occur in 2015, with a success rate of 96.6%. Moreover, it is noteworthy that the model with optimized tuning parameter values successfully predicted 2,037 terrorism event locations where a terrorist attack had never happened before.

Victims of Terrorism and the Right to Redress

The U.N. Global Counterterrorism Strategy (A/RES/60/288) recognizes that the war on terror can only be won by protecting the rights of its victims. However, almost a decade since its adoption, the application of a human rights framework to the protection of the rights of victims of terrorism has been largely neglected. A 2012 report by U.N. Special Rapporteur Ben Emmerson sought to address this inattention, recommending that member states provide reparations to victims of terrorism regardless of the question of State responsibility. While this application of a human rights framework to the discourse on terrorism victims’ rights has been a breakthrough, the recommendations of the Emmerson report imply several thorny issues and fail to confront several key concepts embedded in its assumptions. Analyzing the international norms surrounding victims’ rights vis-à-vis reparations and state responsibility, we posit that all member states indeed have the obligation to protect the rights of victims as human rights and provide avenues for redress. However, we argue that the narrow definition of terrorism in the Emmerson report that fails to include institutional or state terrorism leads to legal and normative questions about who its rightful victims are, who should be held responsible, and what the role of the state and international community is with regard to restitution. Such unresolved questions in international law could ultimately be detrimental to the recognition and protection of the rights of victims of terrorism within a human rights framework.