Glassworks Sites Research Articles

Temporal risk assessment – 20th century Pb emissions to air and exposure via inhalation in the Swedish glass district

The objective of the present study was to assess historical emissions of Pb to air around a number of glassworks sites in southeastern Sweden, and the possible implications for human exposure. To do so, a four-step method was applied. First, emissions of Pb to air around 10 glassworks were modelled for the 20th century. Second, an assessment of the resulting exposure was made for a number of scenarios. Third, the number of people potentially exposed at different times was estimated, and fourth, measurements of “current” Pb concentrations in PM10 material from four sites were conducted in 2019. The results show that the highest emissions, and exposures, occurred from 1970 to1980. It coincides with the time period when the highest number of people resided in the villages. At this time, the average Pb concentration in air around the six largest factories was about 2.4 μg Pb/m3, i.e. 16 times the present US national ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) of 0.15 μg Pb/m3. By year 2000 the modelled average concentration had dropped to 0.05 μg Pb/m3, a level that is normal for urban regions today. The PM10 measurements from 2019 indicate a further decline, now with a mean value of about 0.02 μg Pb/m3. Over the entire study period, inhalation hazard quotients (HQs) exceeded the dietary HQ by many orders of magnitude, indicating that inhalation has been the most prevalent exposure pathway in the past. At present, both pathways are judged to be associated with low exposures. Even if only roughly approximated, a picture of the historical exposure can increase our understanding of the connection between exposure and disease, and can be valuable when risks are to be communicated to residents near contaminated areas.

Exposure of metals and PAH through local foods and risk of cancer in a historically contaminated glassworks area

BackgroundProduction of crystal glass and colored art glassware have been going on in the south-eastern part of Sweden since the 1700s, at over 100 glassworks and smaller glass blowing facilities, resulting in environmental contamination with mainly arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and polycyclic hydrocarbons (PAH). High levels of metals have been found in soil, and moderately elevated levels in vegetables, mushrooms and berries collected around the glassworks sites compared with reference areas. Food in general, is the major exposure source to metals, such as Cd and Pb, and PAHs. Exposure to these toxic metals and PAH has been associated with a variety of adverse health effects in humans including cancer. ObjectiveThe aim of the present study was to evaluate the occurrence of cancer in a cohort from the contaminated glasswork area in relation to long-term dietary intake of locally produced foods, while taking into account residential, occupational and life styles factors. MethodsThe study population was extracted from a population cohort of 34,266 individuals who, at some time between the years 1979–2004, lived within a 2 km radius of a glassworks or glass landfill. Register information on cancer incidence and questionnaire information on consumption of local foods (reflecting 30 years general eating habits), life-time residence in the area, life style factors and occupational exposure was collected. Furthermore, blood (n = 660) and urine (n = 400) samples were collected in a subsample of the population to explore associations between local food consumption frequencies, biomarker concentrations in blood (Cd, Pb, As) and urine (PAH metabolite 1-OHPy) as well as environmental and lifestyle factors. The concurrent exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) from food was also considered. A case-control study was performed for evaluation of associations between intakes of local food and risk of cancer. ResultsDespite high environmental levels of Cd, Pb and As at glasswork sites and landfills, current metal exposure in the population living in the surrounding areas was similar or only moderately higher in our study population compared to the general population. Reported high consumption of certain local foods was associated with higher Cd and Pb, but not As, concentrations in blood, and 1-OHPy in urine. An increased risk of cancer was associated with smoking, family history of cancer, obesity, and residence in glasswork area before age 5 years. Also, a long-term high consumption of local foods (reflecting 30 years general eating habits), i.e. fish and meat (game, chicken, lamb), was associated with increased risk of various cancer forms. ConclusionsThe associations between consumption of local food and different types of cancer may reflect a higher contaminant exposure in the past, and thus, if consumption of local food contributes to the risk of acquiring cancer, that contribution is probably lower today than before. Furthermore, it cannot be ruled out that other contaminants in the food contribute to the increased cancer risks observed.

Improved geochemical modeling of lead solubility in contaminated soils by considering colloidal fractions and solid phase EXAFS speciation

Lead (Pb) is a common contaminant in soils at e.g. mining, shooting range, and glassworks sites. In order to make reliable risk assessments and appropriate decisions on various “gentle remediation options”, such as applying phosphate, compost, or zero-valent iron to soils, the binding mechanism of Pb and its speciation needs to be known. Multi-surface geochemical equilibrium models are useful tools for estimating trace metal solubility and speciation, but for Pb the predictions are often poor. This study evaluates the recent parameterization for Pb in the Visual MINTEQ code for its ability to predict the solubility of Pb at different pH values in four historically contaminated Swedish soils. As an independent validation of the model performance, the modeled solid-phase speciation was compared to measured Pb speciation retrieved using extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy. Furthermore, potential artefacts by the presence of Pb colloids were investigated by filtering solutions through both 0.45 μm and 10 kDa filters. The model accuracy for predicting Pb solubility was improved compared with previous studies producing log root mean square error (RMSE) values below 0.42 in three out of four soils, just by using generic assumptions. The use of ultrafiltered (<10 kDa) instead of the 0.45 μm-filtered Pb concentrations lowered the RMSE with ∼0.4 log units in two soils, giving a more accurate evaluation of the model performance. EXAFS proved to be a useful tool for validating and constraining the model, since the solid phase speciation did not exactly agree with the modeled results using default assumptions. However, a sample-specific optimization of the amount of “active” solid organic matter and Al + Fe hydroxides resulted in improved prediction of Pb solubility as well as better agreement with the EXAFS measurements. Solubility of Pb in the fourth, As-rich soil was probably controlled by Pb5(AsO4)3Cl (mimetite) with a solubility product constant of 10−83.53.

Chemical extraction of trace elements from hazardous fine fraction at an old glasswork dump

Old glassworks sites have been always associated with contamination by different trace elements like Pb, Cd, As, Zn and others. The mixture of soil and waste glass of particle sizes <2 mm at one of the oldest Swedish glassworks (the Pukeberg) was studied by analyzing the trace elements content, organic content (3.6%) and pH (7.4). The results showed hazardous concentrations of Pb (1525 mg/kg), Ba (1312 mg/kg), Sb (128 mg/kg), Cd (36 mg/kg), As (118 mg/kg), Zn (1154 mg/kg) and Co (263 mg/kg) exceeded the Swedish guidelines of contaminated soil. Batch chemical extraction by the chelating agents EDTA, DTPA and the biodegradable NTA were performed to study the effect of chelating agent concentration and mixing time on the extraction efficiencies by following a Box-Wilson design of experiments. The results displayed good extraction efficiencies (less than 41%) of Pb, Cd, As and Zn by the EDTA, DTPA and NTA, which seemed depends on the type of chelator. In addition, high correlation between the extraction efficiencies, the chelators concentration and mixing time was found based on the statistical and experimental results.

Assessing toxicity of metal contaminated soil from glassworks sites with a battery of biotests

The present study addresses toxicological properties of metal contaminated soils, using glassworks sites in south-eastern Sweden as study objects. Soil from five selected glassworks sites as well as from nearby reference areas were analysed for total and water-soluble metal concentrations and general geochemical parameters. A battery of biotests was then applied to assess the toxicity of the glassworks soil environments: a test of phytotoxicity with garden cress (Lepidium sativum); the BioTox™ test for toxicity to bacteria using Vibrio fischeri; and analyses of abundancies and biomass of nematodes and enchytraeids. The glassworks- and reference areas were comparable with respect to pH and the content of organic matter and nutrients (C, N, P), but total metal concentrations (Pb, As, Ba, Cd and Zn) were significantly higher at the former sites. Higher metal concentrations in the water-soluble fraction were also observed, even though these concentrations were low compared to the total ones. Nevertheless, toxicity of the glassworks soils was not detected by the two ex situ tests; inhibition of light emission by V. fischeri could not be seen, nor was an effect seen on the growth of L. sativum. A decrease in enchytraeid and nematode abundance and biomass was, however, observed for the landfill soils as compared to reference soils, implying in situ toxicity to soil-inhabiting organisms. The confirmation of in situ bioavailability and negative effects motivates additional studies of the risk posed to humans of the glassworks villages.

Public perception of risks associated with contaminated glassworks sites in south-eastern Sweden

Glass has been produced for centuries in Kalmar and Kronoberg Counties in south-eastern Sweden. This industry has lead to severe soil contaminations, particularly due to the historical use of lead, cadmium and arsenic. People may be exposed to heavy metals for example via direct soil contact or consumption of locally produced food. The residents’ risk perception was investigated in this study. Do the public perceive a high risk for their own health, for future generations or for the environment, and are they worried? Is there a difference if you live close to the glass factory? Is there a desire for more information about possible risks? With the aim to answer these questions, a questionnaire was sent to 599 individuals in Kalmar and Kronoberg counties. In order to reach people living close to glassworks, half of the questionnaires were sent to randomly selected individuals in four small communities with glassworks and the other half to randomly selected individuals in the two counties. Two groups were compared, one with respondents living 1 km or closer and one living 1 km or more away from a glassworks. The results showed that the respondents were more concerned about risks for the environment than their health. People living close to the glassworks were more worried and perceived a higher risk for the environment, the health and for future generations compared to people living more than 1 km away from glassworks. There was no difference in trust in authorities or consultancies that work with risk assessments, but people that lived close to the glassworks were somewhat keener on having more information about possible risks. About half of the respondents in this group wanted more information about risks, which indicate that there may be a need for an improved risk communication and exchange of information between authorities, researchers and the public.

Increased Cancer Incidence in the Local Population Around Metal-Contaminated Glassworks Sites.

The aim of this study was to examine mortality causes and cancer incidence in a population cohort that have resided in close proximity to highly metal-contaminated sources, characterized by contamination of, in particular, arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb). Data from Swedish registers were used to calculate standardized mortality and cancer incidence ratios. An attempt to relate cancer incidence to metal contamination levels was made. Significantly elevated cancer incidences were observed for overall malignant cancers in both genders, cancer in the digestive system, including colon, rectum, and pancreas, and cancers in prostate among men. Dose-response relationships between Cd and Pb levels in soil and cancer risks were found. Cancer observations made, together with previous studies of metal uptake in local vegetables, may imply that exposure to local residents have occurred primarily via oral intake of locally produced foodstuffs.

The risk of overestimating the risk-metal leaching to groundwater near contaminated glass waste deposits and exposure via drinking water

This study investigates metal contamination patterns and exposure to Sb, As, Ba, Cd and Pb via intake of drinking water in a region in southeastern Sweden where the production of artistic glass has resulted in a large number of contaminated sites. Despite high total concentrations of metals in soil and groundwater at the glassworks sites properties, all drinking water samples from households with private wells, located at a 30–640m distance from a glassworks site, were below drinking water criteria from the WHO for Sb, As, Ba and Cd. A few drinking water samples showed concentrations of Pb above the WHO guideline, but As was the only element found in concentrations that could result in human exposure near toxicological reference values. An efficient retention of metals in the natural soil close to the source areas, which results in a moderate impact on local drinking water, is implied. Firstly, by the lack of significant difference in metal concentrations when comparing households located upstream and downstream of the main waste deposits, and secondly, by the lack of correlation between the metal concentration in drinking water and distance to the nearest glassworks site. However, elevated Pb and Cd concentrations in drinking water around glassworks sites when compared to regional groundwater indicate that diffuse contamination of the soils found outside the glassworks properties, and not only the glass waste landfills, may have a significant impact on groundwater quality. We further demonstrate that different mobilization patterns apply to different metals. Regarding the need to use reliable data to assess drinking water contamination and human exposure, we finally show that the conservative modelling approaches that are frequently used in routine risk assessments may result in exposure estimates many times higher than those based on measured concentrations in the drinking water that is actually being used for consumption.

High metal reactivity and environmental risks at a site contaminated by glass waste

This study addresses the reactivity and risks of metals (Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn, As and Sb) at a Swedish site with large glass waste deposits. Old glassworks sites typically have high total metal concentrations, but as the metals are mainly bound within the glass waste and considered relatively inert, environmental investigations at these kinds of sites are limited. In this study, soil and landfill samples were subjected to a sequential chemical extraction procedure. Data from batch leaching tests and groundwater upstream and downstream of the waste deposits were also interpreted. The sequential extraction revealed that metals in <2 mm soil/waste samples were largely associated with geochemically active fractions, indicating that metals are released from pristine glass and subsequently largely retained in the surrounding soil and/or on secondary mineral coatings on fine glass particles. From the approximately 12,000 m3 of coarse glass waste at the site, almost 4000 kg of Pb is estimated to have been lost through corrosion, which, however, corresponds to only a small portion of the total amount of Pb in the waste. Metal sorption within the waste deposits or in underlying soil layers is supported by fairly low metal concentrations in groundwater. However, elevated concentrations in downstream groundwater and in leachates of batch leaching tests were observed for several metals, indicating on-going leaching. Taken together, the high metal concentrations in geochemically active forms and the high amounts of as yet uncorroded metal-rich glass, indicate considerable risks to human health and the environment.

An assessment of health risks associated with arsenic exposure via consumption of homegrown vegetables near contaminated glassworks sites

The health risk posed by arsenic in vegetables grown in private gardens near 22 contaminated glassworks sites was investigated in this study. Firstly, vegetable (lettuce and potato) and soil samples were collected and arsenic concentrations measured to characterize the arsenic uptake in the selected crops. Secondly, a probabilistic exposure assessment was conducted to estimate the average daily intake (ADIveg), which was then evaluated against toxicological reference values by the calculation of hazard quotients (HQs) and cancer risks (CRs). The results show that elevated arsenic concentrations in residential garden soils are mirrored by elevated concentrations in vegetables, and that consumption of these vegetables alone may result in an unacceptable cancer risk; the calculated reasonable maximum exposure, for example, corresponded to a cancer incidence 20 times higher than the stated tolerance limit. However, the characterization of risk depends to a great extent on which toxicological reference value is used for comparison, as well as how the exposure is determined. Based on the assumptions made in the present study, the threshold levels for chronic non-carcinogenic or acute effects were not exceeded, but the cancer risks indicated highlight the need for further exposure studies, as dietary intake involves more than just homegrown vegetables and total exposure is a function of more than just one exposure pathway. In addition, glassworks sites – and contaminated sites in general – contain multiple contaminants, affecting the final and total risk.

Metal uptake by homegrown vegetables – The relative importance in human health risk assessments at contaminated sites

Risk assessments of contaminated land often involve the use of generic bioconcentration factors (BCFs), which express contaminant concentrations in edible plant parts as a function of the concentration in soil, in order to assess the risks associated with consumption of homegrown vegetables. This study aimed to quantify variability in BCFs and evaluate the implications of this variability for human exposure assessments, focusing on cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in lettuce and potatoes sampled around 22 contaminated glassworks sites. In addition, risks associated with measured Cd and Pb concentrations in soil and vegetable samples were characterized and a probabilistic exposure assessment was conducted to estimate the likelihood of local residents exceeding tolerable daily intakes. The results show that concentrations in vegetables were only moderately elevated despite high concentrations in soil, and most samples complied with applicable foodstuff legislation. Still, the daily intake of Cd (but not Pb) was assessed to exceed toxicological thresholds for about a fifth of the study population. Bioconcentration factors were found to vary more than indicated by previous studies, but decreasing BCFs with increasing metal concentrations in the soil can explain why the calculated exposure is only moderately affected by the choice of BCF value when generic soil guideline values are exceeded and the risk may be unacceptable.

Influence of Potsdam sandstone on the trace element signatures of some 19th‐century American and Canadian glass: Redwood, Redford, Mallorytown, and Como–Hudson

AbstractPotsdam sandstone from quarries and outcrops near 19th‐century glassworks sites in Redwood, NY, and Saranac, NY, Mallorytown, ON, and Como and Hudson, QC, commonly contains _97% silica, so in terms of its purity can compete with other historical producers of silica sand (e.g., Cheshire quartzite, MA; southern New Jersey sand). Exploratory analysis of trace element data using multidimensional scaling (MDS) shows that geographically distinct sources of Potsdam sandstone can be distinguished from one another and from competing sources of silica sand, particularly in terms of high field strength elements (e.g., Nb, Y, Ti, Zr), the rare earth elements, and radioactive elements (U, Th), and this geochemical signature is carried through to the glass it was used to manufacture. Other trace elements (e.g., Ba, Sr, Rb) are concentrated in various batch ingredients (e.g., limestone, alkali fluxes). The Hf/Nb, La/Ce, Nb/Th, and La/Zr ratios for each type of glass and nearby Potsdam sandstone sources cluster together in distinct fields on MDS plots. These data confirm the use of Potsdam sandstone in these important historical glassworks, and show that except for material sampled from neighboring communities (Mallorytown and Redwood), trace elements can be used to identify specific sources of silica historically used by the glassmaking industry. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Pyrometamorphism of 19th‐century kiln artifacts from Caledonia Springs, Ontario, Canada

AbstractMarked, 19th‐century kiln bricks and rocks from Caledonia Springs (CS) have black glass coatings that can easily be mistaken for glass produced at the elusive CS glassworks (c. 1844–1846). The glass‐on‐brick material, however, is more aluminous (nearly 20% Al2O3) than virtually any analyzed historical glass, and the glass‐on‐rock is compositionally similar to the rock itself, which shows clear signs of having undergone extensive melting. Mineral thermometry (Cpx‐Ol, Pl‐melt) indicates that parts of the kiln‐achieved temperatures of approximately 1200–1300°C. The CS samples show that caution must be exercised when identifying seemingly obvious waste glass near defunct glassworks sites. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.