Given Level Of Education Research Articles

A Bayesian Model for Estimating Sustainable Development Goal Indicator 4.1.2: School Completion Rates

AbstractEstimating school completion is crucial for monitoring Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 on education. The recently introduced SDG indicator 4.1.2, defined as the percentage of children aged 3–5 years above the expected completion age of a given level of education that have completed the respective level, differs from enrolment indicators in that it relies primarily on household surveys. This introduces a number of challenges including gaps between survey waves, conflicting estimates, age misreporting and delayed completion. We introduce the Adjusted Bayesian Completion Rates (ABCR) model to address these challenges and produce the first complete and consistent time series for SDG indicator 4.1.2, by school level and sex, for 164 countries. Validation exercises indicate that the model appears well-calibrated and offers a meaningful improvement over simpler approaches in predictive performance. The ABCR model is now used by the United Nations to monitor completion rates for all countries with available survey data.

Assessment of human capital development and its impact on the economy of the country

Object: In the article, the authors consider human capital as the driving force of the economy, identification of trends in relations, dynamics, prospects and results, where human capital influences the economic development of Kazakhstan. The aim of the study is to assess the critique of human capital development.Methods: The results of the research are based on the fundamental theoretical and empirical work of leading Kazakh and foreign scientists devoted to the analysis of the processes of accumulation and use of human capital. General scientific principles and methods were applied: analysis and synthesis, system approach.Findings: The basic components of basic human capital, such as education and training, Gross domestic product (GDP) growth, have been analysed. The authors analysed data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER), which is an index illustrating the number of students enrolled at a given level of education. The results of the study showed that that health is the main component of human capital formation. T. Schultz suggested that health is a vital part of human capital formation, as it reflects living conditions. Life expectancy is the best indicator for determining health status.Conclusions: The need for investment in research and development was noted since any investment in science and technology increases human capital in the country. Therefore, the next indicator to be considered is an investment in research and development in Kazakhstan. An analysis was made of the main criteria for the development of human capital in Kazakhstan, which revealed the strengths and weaknesses of the current situation in the country. An assessment of the different levels of education shows that the gross enrolment ratio in primary and secondary schools is quite high. However, the GER for higher education is quite low compared to other developed countries.

Gross Enrolment Ratio in Higher Education: A District Level Analysis of the State of West Bengal

Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) is the number of students enrolled in a given level of education, expressed as a percentage of the official age group of the population corresponding to the same level of education. In the state of West Bengal, GER in higher education for the age group 18 -23 years is 18.7%, which is far below the national average of 25.8% for 2017-2018. There is a large variation in GER across different districts and among male and female. An effort has been made through this paper to study the spatio temporal variation in GER among the districts of West Bengal. To study the gender disparity in GER in the districts of West Bengal Gender Parity Index (GPI) is calculated. Among the districts of West Bengal, Kolkata has recorded highest GER in higher education in all the years and Uttar Dinajpur has recorded the lowest GER throughout the years (2012 to 2018). GPI in gross enrolment in greater than unity in 14 out of 19 districts of the state.

Storm Clouds Ahead? Migration and Labor Force Participation Rates in Europe

The paper examines the potential effects of international migration on labor force participation in advanced economies in Europe. It documents that migration played a significant role in alleviating aging pressures on labor supply by affecting the age composition of receiving countries’ populations. However, micro-level analysis also points to differences in average educational levels, as well as differences in the effects of any given level of education on participation across migrants and natives. Difficulties related to the recognition of educational qualifications appear to be associated with smaller effects of education on the odds of participation for migrants, especially women.

Storm Clouds Ahead? Migration and Labor Force Participation Rates in Europe

The paper examines the potential effects of international migration on labor force participation in advanced economies in Europe. It documents that migration played a significant role in alleviating aging pressures on labor supply by affecting the age composition of receiving countries’ populations. However, micro-level analysis also points to differences in average educational levels, as well as differences in the effects of any given level of education on participation across migrants and natives. Difficulties related to the recognition of educational qualifications appear to be associated with smaller effects of education on the odds of participation for migrants, especially women.

The Role of Education for Intergenerational Income Mobility: A comparison of the United States, Great Britain, and Sweden

Previous studies have found that intergenerational income persistence is relatively high in the United States and Britain, especially as compared to Nordic countries. We compare the association between family income and sons’ earnings in the United States (National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1979), Britain (British Cohort Study 1970), and Sweden (Population Register Data, 1965 cohort), and find that both income elasticities and rank-order correlations are highest in the United States, followed by Britain, with Sweden being clearly more equal. We ask whether differences in educational inequality and in return to qualifications can explain these cross-country differences. Surprisingly, we find that this is not the case, even though returns to education are higher in the United States. Instead, the low income mobility in the United States and Britain is almost entirely due to the part of the parent-son association that is not mediated by educational attainment. In the United States and especially Britain, parental income is far more important for earnings at a given level of education than in Sweden, a result that holds also when controlling for cognitive ability. This goes against widespread ideas of the United States as a country where the role of ascription is limited and meritocratic stratification prevails.

The Reversed Gender Gap in Education and Assortative Mating in Europe.

While in the past men received more education than women, the gender gap in education has turned around: in recent years, more highly educated women than highly educated men are reaching the reproductive ages. Using data from the European Social Survey (rounds 1-6), we investigate the implications of this reversed gender gap for educational assortative mating. We fit multilevel multinomial regression models to predict the proportions of men and women living with a partner of a given level of education, contingent on respondents' own educational attainment and on the cohort-specific sex ratio among the population with tertiary education at the country level. We find that highly educated women tend to partner more often "downwards" with less educated men, rather than remaining single more often. Medium educated women are found to partner less often "upwards" with highly educated men. For men, there is no evidence that they are more likely to partner with highly educated women. Rather, they are found to be living single more often. In sum, women's advantage in higher education has affected mating patterns in important ways: while women previously tended to form unions with men who were at least as highly educated as themselves, they now tend to live with men who are at most as highly educated. Along the way, advanced education became a bonus on the mating market for women as well as for men.

Pay for Progress The Relationship Between Florida Districts? Teacher Salary Offerings and Their High School Dropout Rates

While teacher effectiveness literature has suggested a potential promising relationship between test-score-based teacher quality and student test score based growth, the question of whether teachers can improve student dropout rates is not as well understood. Grounding our work based on theories that suggest higher salaries may attract better teachers, we utilize panel analyses on three years’ worth of data (2012–2014) to estimate the potential impact of Florida public school districts’ teacher offerings on their dropout rates. We define teacher salaries in three different ways: (1) districts’ average teacher salary, (2) teachers’ earning potential with a given level of education (i.e., bachelor’s and master’s degree holders) within the districts, and (3) districts’ salary-level offering. Our findings support the assertion that improved pay is positively related to lower student dropouts. This finding contributes significantly to the teacher quality, teacher salary, and the high school dropout prevention literature and has policy implications.

Student Test Performance and National Economies: Examining a Neoliberal Conjecture

PISA results make national decision makers very nervous and for good reason: There is the perceived assumption that student performance on the PISA and other international exams are tied directly to a nation's future economic status. Essentially, the notion is that the greater the students’ test scores, the more secure a nation's economic future. But such concerns ignore the three main functions of educational systems: the socialization of youth so that they understand their culture, nation's history, and normative culture; the political socialization of youth so that they become competent citizens; and the provision of skills to youth so that they can participate in the labor market. So there is reason to infer that education is tied to the economy. There are two conjectures being made here: The first is that student performance is related to a nation's economy. That is, the better the economy, the better the student performances. A second conjecture is that student performance will lead to better economies or greater economic growth. The first conjecture seems to view education as being endogenous to economic growth or at least associated with it. The second conjecture, however, views education as being exogenous to economic growth, and it measures the change in economic growth over time to some given level of education among a cohort. In my analysis, I find that education is not related to economic growth after other structural factors are taken into account.

Expansion and inequality of educational opportunity: A comparative study

Educational attendance rates increased dramatically during the twentieth century, especially in the decades following World War II. In most countries for which data are available, inequality of educational opportunity between social strata declined in those decades, but stabilized thereafter. Analyzing ESS (European Social Survey) data for 24 countries and for cohorts born between the 1950s and 1970s, we study whether educational expansion affected change in equality of educational opportunity among social strata. Our results show educational expansion enhanced inequality of opportunity for tertiary education among cohorts born in the 1950s and 1970s and enhanced inequality of opportunity at the secondary level for the cohort of the 1970s. We also tested and refuted Raftery and Hout's (1993) saturation hypothesis that once the affluent strata reached universal attendance at a given level of education, its further expansion would reduce inequality among strata in the odds of its attainment. These results corroborate the hypothesis that the privileged strata are better poised the benefit from educational expansion than the sons and daughters of the lower strata. From a policy perspective, we conclude that expansion is not necessarily an effective tool for the reduction of inequality of educational opportunity. Furthermore, the perpetual expansion of education that is pursued in most countries may hinder the reduction of gaps in education.

Educational Assortative Mating and Income Inequality in Denmark

Many writers have expressed a concern that growing educational assortative mating will lead to greater inequality between households in their earnings or income. In this article, we examine the relationship between educational assortative mating and income inequality in Denmark between 1987 and 2006. Denmark is widely known for its low level of income inequality, but the Danish case provides a good test of the relationship between educational assortative mating and inequality because although income inequality increased over the period we consider, educational homogamy declined. Using register data on the exact incomes of the whole population, we find that change in assortative mating increased income inequality but that these changes were driven by changes in the educational distributions of men and women rather than in the propensity for people to choose a partner with a given level of education.

How are the Children of Visible Minority Immigrants Doing in the Canadian Labour Market?

This paper examines the performance of the children of immigrants (2nd generation immigrants) to Canada using data from the 2006 Census. As the composition of immigration inflows has shifted after 1980 from the traditional European source countries to the Third World, the analysis focuses on the labour market performance of 2nd generation visible minority immigrants of whom there were 398 thousand aged15 and over who reported employment income in the Census. An encouraging fact revealed by the data is that 2nd generation visible minority immigrants are becoming more highly educated than 2nd generation non-visible minority immigrants and than non-immigrants – 46.2 per cent of 2nd generation visible minority between 25 and 44 earning employment had earned university certificates or degrees compared to 31 per cent of non-visible minority 2nd generation immigrants and 24 per cent of non-immigrants in the same age groups. But, while 2nd generation visible minority immigrants obtained more education than 2nd generation non-visible minority immigrants and non-immigrants, their performance as a group did not measure up in the labour market. In the 25 to 44 age group, accounting for the largest number of 2nd generation visible minority immigrants, they only earned on average $39,814, whereas 2nd generation non-visible minority immigrants earned $45,352 and non-immigrants 40,358. The labour market performance varies significantly among different visible minority groups. 2nd generation Chinese immigrants in the 25 to 44 age group actually earned $48,098, which was actually more than 2nd generation non-visible minority immigrants and non-immigrants. Because of the large number of Chinese included as 2nd generation immigrants, this buoyed up the overall average and masked the unfortunate fact that many other visible minority groups are doing much worse than average overall and falling short of non-immigrants. A troubling aspect of the performance of 2nd generation immigrants, except for Chinese and Japanese, is the extent to which they earn substantially less than non-immigrants and especially non-visible minority immigrants for any given level of education. The paper thus provides no grounds for complacency that the children of the recent, particularly non-Asian visible minority, immigrants who are performing so poorly in Canada’s labour market will catch up with non-immigrant groups, particularly given that their parents are currently performing much worse than earlier visible minority immigrants in the labour market. And it is unlikely that 2nd generation visible minority immigrants as a group will earn enough to make up for the current earnings shortfall experienced by their parents in recent cohorts of underperforming immigrants. Furthermore, the lower earnings of many visible minority groups for any given level of education are likely to continue be used as justification for more affirmative action programs. This will adversely affect the non-visible minority and non-immigrant population, and could become a source of increasing social tension.

Education as a Positional Good: A Life Satisfaction Approach

In this paper we empirically investigate the direct effects of education on utility. Besides investment aspects of education, the focus is placed on its consumption component and on education positional concerns. We use data from the World Values Survey (WVS) and adopt a life satisfaction approach. First, we find that education shows a significant effect on life satisfaction independent of its effect on income, thus identifying a consumption component of education. Furthermore, given that the contribution of education to individual wellbeing might depend partly on relative position rather than absolute levels, we next study whether education can be considered as a positional good. To this end we analyse the relationship between education and life satisfaction for people in different income groups in which the reference levels of education may differ. Additionally, we control for occupational status since benefits from education could appear via occupational benefits. Our results indicate that the contribution of education to subjective wellbeing is stronger as less people attain a given level of education, thus suggesting that this contribution is partly due to positional concerns.

Influence of Race, Ethnicity, and Culture on Childhood Obesity: Implications for Prevention and Treatment

Influence of Race, Ethnicity, and Culture on Childhood Obesity: Implications for Prevention and Treatment

Determinants and developments of employer provided training: evidence from a wage compressed environment

Using a representative employer‐employee level dataset, this paper answers four questions: (1) What characterises employer provided training in Norway? (2) What characterises firms that invest heavily in employer provided training? (3) Is it the same firms that invest in employer provided all the time? (4) Has the level of employer provided training increased in recent years? First, employer provided training in Norway is paid for by the firm and it creates skills that are quite general and transferable to other parts of the labour market. This result is especially interesting when found in a labour market like the Norwegian, characterized by a very compressed wage structure. Second, unionized firms, female dominated firms, high‐educated firms, small firms, firms using new work practices, and technology intensive firms are more likely to offer training to their workers. Third, firms that invested heavily in training in the previous period are most likely the same firms that invest much in training in the present period as well. Put simply: ‘Training firms’ train all the time, ‘Non‐training firms’ do not train at all. Fourth, the level of firm investments in training has increased in recent years, but the increase disappears as soon as we control for the level of education. Our interpretation of this is that higher level of education among the employees has created an increased need for training, so the level of training has increased, but for a given level of education, the level of training is approximately the same.

Models for the evolution of inequality in educational level

During the years 84-97, a long debate occurred in France about models for the evolution of inequalities related to the percentages of a given educational level. First we try to synthesize the main contributions, then we consider models based on a latent variable called: "educational income". The frequencies at a given level of education are used to estimate the means of this variable for the social categories concerned. This passage from a local property of a distribution to a more central property can be interpreted as a measurement scale. The scales comparing percentages, already suggested in the debate, are often not very compatible with this point of view. It is not the case of the currently most used one: the logistic scale. Under this light, it is not an ideal model however.

Why Do Different Countries Choose a Different Public-Private Mix of Educational Services?

We observe a wide range across countries in the percentage of total enrollments that attend private rather than public schools. This paper seeks to explain 1) the systematically higher proportion of private enrollments (%PVT) in developing as compared with developed countries at the secondary level, and 2) the seemingly random variation across countries within a given level of education and stage of development. I argue that the latter is due to differentiated and nonprofit supply, both of which stem from cultural heterogeneity, especially religious heterogeneity. In contrast, the large %PVT at the secondary level in developing countries is hypothesized to stem from limited public spending, which creates an excess demand from people who would prefer to use the public schools but are involuntarily excluded and pushed into the private sector. The limited public spending on secondary education, in turn, is modelled as a collective decision which is strongly influenced by the

Body fat distribution and job stress in Mexican-American men of the hispanic health and nutrition examination survey.

A positive relationship between psychosocial stress and central body fat distribution has been hypothesized. To test this hypothesis, two indices derived from principal components analysis of four skinfold measurements were studied in relation to imputed job stress characteristics (decision latitude, skill discretion, decision authority, and psychological demands) in Mexican-American men of the U.S. Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (HHANES). The two indices were fatness and central body fat distribution. Fatness was not significantly associated with any of the job stress characteristics before controlling for education. Once education was included in the equations, however, the relationship between fatness and two of the four job stress variables (decision authority and psychological demands) became statistically significant. Thus, for a given level of education, increasing job stress was associated with increasing fatness. Three of the four job stress characteristics were significantly associated with central body fat distribution before controlling for education. However, after education was entered into the regression equations as a proxy for social class, the relationships between central body fat distribution and the job stress variables were no longer significant. It thus appears that aspects of social class other than job stress are of equal or greater importance in predicting body fat distribution. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

An Analysis of the Effect of Schooling, Experience and Sex On Earnings in the Government and Private Sectors of Urban Java

The returns to education in Indonesia are analysed using Susenas data. The private sector is found to reward education more generously than the public sector, while the latter puts a premium on experience. A casual analysis suggests general sex discrimination against female workers at any given level of education; however, once experience is allowed for, the negative sex differentials become insignificant. Finally, the general returns to education are of the order of 15–17% additional income for each additional year of schooling, which is a very high rate of return compared with other countries.

Political economy of investment in education in South Asia

This paper aims at explaining the patterns of public investment in education and its intrasectoral distribution by its levels in the South Asian countries. First an index of human capital development is constructed which highlights the wide inequalities in educational development between the countries of the region. Public investment in education, which is used as the weight in constructing the index, has been the focus of attention in the remainder of the paper. It has been found that inadequate investment in education is one of the important reasons for failures in realising educational objectives like universalisation of elementary education and eradication of illiteracy. It is also found that it is wrong to say that less investment is made in education by some countries because they are economically poor or less developed. As is shown here, investment in education is not determined by the level of economic development, nor is it determined by the achievements (and correspondingly the tasks ahead) of the educational sector, as reflected by the enrolment ratios and the literacy rates. Further, public investment in any given level of education is also not determined by enrolment ratios in the corresponding levels. It is also shown here that there is a severe misallocation of resources between the different levels of education and an attempt is made to explain the underinvestment and the misallocation of resources in education in the region.