Swamp Taro Research Articles

Nutritional composition and mineral bioavailability of selected root and tuber crops in the Bicol Region, Philippines

Filipinos consume root and tuber crops as inexpensive sources of nourishment. However, the limited information on the nutritional and mineral bioavailability of root and tuber crops inhibits their optimal utilization in what could possibly address nutrient deficiencies among the populations. This study determined the proximate composition of cassava, sweet potato, taro, giant swamp taro, cocoyam, and purple yam through the Association of the Analytical Chemists (AOAC) standard method. The mineral bioavailability was determined in vitro by simulating digestion from the oral up to the intestinal phase. Mineral and trace metal contents were quantified using a Microwave Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometer (MP-AES). The crops’ ash, protein, fat, and total dietary fiber contents ranged from 1.23-3.53%, 2.01-9.32%, 0.18-0.83%, and 4.23-19.3%, respectively. Taro (9.32%) and purple yam (6.71%) have the highest protein contents among the crops examined and can be considered as sources of protein based on the recommended nutrient intake (RENI) for Filipino adults. Except for cassava, most of the studied crops were high sources of total dietary fiber, with the giant swamp taro (48% RENI) as the highest. Total minerals such as K, Ca, Mg, Na, and considerable quantities of Zn, Mn, Fe, and Cu were detected. The mineral bioavailability varied for Zn (47.0-98.0%), Cu (37.5-86.8%), Mn (31.5-91.8%), Mg (31.9-90.2%), Ca (2.54-31.1%) and Fe (4.7-20.7%). Consumption of 100 g of the examined crops, except for giant swamp taro and cassava, can contribute to the daily Cu for adults aged 19-29. Taro contributes to the daily nutritional requirement for bioavailable Ca and Mg, while giant swamp taro contributes to Zn and Mn requirements. None of the examined crops contained sufficient bioavailable Fe to contribute to Filipinos’ daily requirements. The study can help address the limited information on the nutritional and mineral bioavailability of root and tuber crops, which hampers their utilization to address some nutrient deficiency among the Filipino population, and emphasizes the consumption of these crops to enhance dietary diversification, which can alleviate some nutrient deficiencies in the country.

Comparative Growth of Elephant Ear Taro (Alocasia macrorrhiza) and Giant Swamp Taro (Cyrtosperma merkusii) in Hawai‘i

Alocasia macrorrhiza and Cyrtosperma merkusii are root crops in the family Araceae that have the potential to be grown as fodder plants in Hawai‘i. This research focused on growing C. merkusii and two varieties (Laufola and Faitama) of A. macrorrhiza to evaluate their growth and yield. A randomized complete block design was used to set up two growth trials in 2018 and 2019. Varieties were grown in pots in the first trial and directly on the ground in the second trial. Plant growth was measured weekly by the plant height and leaf area of the main plants. The weights of the leaf blades, petioles, and stems were taken as the yield. Lateral plants and their weights were also measured. The yield data at harvest were statistically analyzed with a one-way ANOVA in PROC GLM, and means were separated using a Post-hoc test, Least Significant Difference, at 5%. The influence of plant height, leaf area, number of leaves produced by main plants, number of lateral plants, and their total weight on yield were analyzed by Pearson’s correlation coefficient. The growth and yield of plants in the second trial were generally superior to those in the first trial, in which the Laufola variety had the highest growth increase in height and leaf area, followed by Faitama. Those varieties of A. macrorrhiza also had the highest yields. The Laufola variety had the greatest average yield, in kg/ha estimates of the stem (54,896 kg/ha), petiole (99,647 kg/ha), and leaf blades (25,563 kg/ha). Plant height, leaf area, and the number of leaves produced by the main plants had a strong positive influence on the yields. Laufola and Faitama varieties have better potential to be grown in Hilo, Hawai‘i.

Biodiversity for Food Security: The Giant Swamp Taro ‘Dalugha’ from Sangihe Islands, North Sulawesi, Indonesia

Biodiversity provides environmental services, foods, drugs, fibers and timbers for humans. The value of biodiversity to the Indonesian people is enormous. To feed its ever-growing population, the Indonesian government has made improving food security and food sovereignity a national priority. Achieving food security is intrinsically linked to the maintenance of biodiversity. This research was conducted in Tamako District, Sangihe Islands, North Sulawesi. One of the most serious threats to biodiversity is climate change. Small islands can be impacted by extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and the effects of climate change. Local or native crops play important role in enhancing food security. Giant swamp taro Cyrtosperma merkusii known by local people as Dalugha is one of main staple food in the Sangihe Islands, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Prior to the introduction of rice, sago, cassava, and giant swamp taro were staple dietary sources for the Sangihe Islanders. Dalugha grows in swamps near the coast, where seawater inundates the swamp during high tide. It has a high nutritional value as a substitute food and easy to propagate. As a result, it is an essential crop for enhancing food security, especially in facing sea level rise and climate change.

Environmental and farming practice controls of productivity of Cyrtosperma merkusii (giant swamp taro), an underutilised wetland and potential paludiculture crop

AbstractGrowing recognition of the potential vulnerabilities of major crop systems has spurred a growing interest in the potential of alternative crops which may be resilient to climate change and also help mitigate its effects. In Indonesia, such issues are particularly pertinent given that country's particular vulnerability to climate change impacts high dependence on agricultural livelihoods and varied topographies and growing conditions. Cyrtosperma merkusii (giant swamp taro) is a wetland plant which has historically formed part of food systems in the eastern Pacific. The plant has the potential to be cultivated as a source of starch on marginal coastal land and on peatlands with high water tables. The aim of this paper was therefore to determine site conditions that promote growth of C. merkusii and the macro and micronutrient status of the corms. Naturally, the size of the plants varied substantially among sites, with a neutral pH, and low redox and conductivity being strong edaphic predictors of corm size. Despite substantial differences in the soil properties of the different study sites, there were no significant differences in the macro and micronutrient content of the corms. Field trials showed that although the plants grew under dry land conditions, the plants grew bigger and yielded corms with greater concentrations of Fe, Mn and K under waterlogged conditions, indicating that a high‐water table is the best cultivation environment for C. merkusii. The nutrient content of the corms suggests that, although primarily a starch crop, C. merkusii could also increase the intake of Fe in populations where Fe deficiency is pervasive. We conclude that the wetland plant C. merkusii has considerable potential as a paludiculture crop in low‐lying areas of SE Asia as it was tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions and performed well when cultivated under waterlogged conditions without additional fertilisation.

Hematology, Blood Serum, Growth Performance, and Carcass Characteristics of Slow-growing Chickens Fed Single and Blended Root Meals

Toxins and substances with anti-nutritional potential have impeded the successful integration of root and tuber crops into animal diets. However, the ultimate indices of the physiological state of a farm animal are the growth performance and blood profiles. Hence, single and mixed formulations of Dioscorea hispida and Cyrtosperma merkusii root meals were used to assess chicken performance and hematological reactions. Two hundred and forty Bisaya chickens were fed with maize and root meals. Each set of treatments had 60 chickens, with three replicates of 20. The diets were: T1 (100% corn-based), T2 (50% D. hispida diet), T3 (50% C. merkusii diet), and T4 (25% D. hispida+25% C. merkusii diet). Feed intake, body weight, and mean weight gain (MWG) were collected biweekly, and carcass evaluation was done on harvesting. Hematological indices and serum profiles were tested. The T1 and T4 diets produced the most significant body weight and MWG, followed by T2 and T3. An improved feed conversion ratio (FCR) for T1 and T4 were significantly different from T2 and T3. The T4 specific growth rate (SGR) was similar to T1 and T2 but greater than T3. The T1 diet gave the most significant slaughter weight and dress weight, carcass components, and edible offal, followed by T4. The T4 diet raised PCV, RBC, Hb, cholesterol, and triglycerides more than T2, and T3, but no significant difference was found between T4 and T1. All solo root meal substitutes (T2 and T3) negatively impacted chicken performance; however, the 25% D. hispida+25% C. merkusii mix (T4) enhanced growth performance, most carcass features, and the blood profiles of slow-growing chickens when compared to a corn-based diet (T1).

Swamp taro cocoyam (cytosperma chamissonis) as a potential feedstuff for livestock

A study was conducted to determine the nutritional potentials of some parts (corm and leaves) of swamp taro cocoyam (Cytosperma chamiIssonis) as a feed resource for livestock. The corm was prepared by washing in water before slicing into small pieces with sharp knife. The sliced corms were shared into two parts, one part sun dried for three days and the other part boiled and then sun dried for five days. Thereafter, the two parts were ground into powder separately with a mechanical blender, labeled and stored in different air-tight bottles. The leaves were washed, chopped into smaller pieces, sun dried, pulverized, labeled and stored. These stored samples were subjected to series of chemical analyses (proximate, phytochemical, mineral and vitamin determinations) to elucidate their chemical, toxicant, mineral and vitamin compositions. The results of proximate composition of the corm and leaves showed that the fresh leaves contained higher crude protein value (22.87t0.23 %), followed by raw sun dried corm (7.93+0.11 %). The fresh. leaves also contained higher crude fibre (6.73:0.01 %) than either the raw sun dried corm (1.36:0.05 %) or boiled sun dried corm (1.15+0.01 %). The boiled sun dried corm had the highest nitrogen free extract (NFE) or carbohydrate value (75.32+0.15 %), followed by the raw sun dried corm (74.31t0.05 %) and the fresh leaves (69.00t0.26 %). The dried leaves had the lowest NFE value (61.04:0.20 %). The results also showed that the leaves were richer in iron, flavonoid and alkaloid than the corm. In the contrary, the corm contained higher levels of phytate than the leaves. The results of vitamin and mineral determinations showed that the cocoyam leaves contained higher levels of evaluated vitamins (vit. A, riboflavin, niacin, thiamin and vit. C) than the corm. Besides, the leaves contained higher levels of magnesium, copper, potassium and iron than the corm, while the reverse is true for calcium, zinc, sodium and manganese. The statistical analyses for proximate composition between the fresh and dried leaves were significant (P<0.05) for CP, CF, ether extract, total ash and NFE. The analyses for these same fractions were not significant (P>0.05) between the raw sun dried and boiled sun dried corms. The analyses for mineral composition between the fresh and dry leaves, and between the raw sun dried and boiled sun dried corms were significantly (P<0.05) different for Cu, Mg, K, Na and Fe, but not for Zn, Ca and Mn. The analyses for vitamin composition between the fresh and dry leaves, and between the raw sun dried and boiled sun dried corms were significantly (P<0.05) different for riboflavin and vit. C, but not for niacin, thiamin and vit. A. The results of this study are indicative that the leaves and corm of swamp taro cocoyam are promising feed resources for livestock. It is therefore recommended that greater emphasis be placed on the production of swamp taro cocoyam because of its numerous benefits.

Formulation of Mucoadhesive Tablets with Fully Gelatinized Modified Daluga (Cyrtosperma Merkusii) Matrix Using Simplex Lattice Design Method

starch could used as ingredient fillers, binders and crushers in tablet manufacture. Amylum is also defined as carbohydrates from from plant, as results photosynthesis, which is stored in part certain plant as backup food starch is mixture two type structure different polysaccharides that is contains (17-20) % amylose and (80-83) % amylopectin. Destination study this is for know the formulation of mucoadhesive tablets with fully gelatinized modified daluga (cyrtosperma merkusii) matrix using simplex lattice design method. Quantitative Test Methods that aim for count yield starch and qualitative tests aimed at for knowing content polysaccharides in starch. Iodine test on amylose will show color blue, and on amylopectin. Character test result data physique granules and tablets as well as release ranitidine of tablets analyzed with using the Design-Expert® software, so that obtained the contour plot of each test results. Determination of the optimum formula begins with determine the optimized parameters that is speed flow, tablet hardness, tablet friability, floating time and speed release ranitidine HCl

Formulation of Mucoadhesive Tablets with Fully Gelatinized Modified Daluga (Cyrtosperma Merkusii) Matrix Using Simplex Lattice Design Method

starch could used as ingredient fillers, binders and crushers in tablet manufacture. Amylum is also defined as carbohydrates from from plant, as results photosynthesis, which is stored in part certain plant as backup food starch is mixture two type structure different polysaccharides that is contains (17-20) % amylose and (80-83) % amylopectin. Destination study this is for know the formulation of mucoadhesive tablets with fully gelatinized modified daluga (cyrtosperma merkusii) matrix using simplex lattice design method. Quantitative Test Methods that aim for count yield starch and qualitative tests aimed at for knowing content polysaccharides in starch. Iodine test on amylose will show color blue, and on amylopectin. Character test result data physique granules and tablets as well as release ranitidine of tablets analyzed with using the Design-Expert® software, so that obtained the contour plot of each test results. Determination of the optimum formula begins with determine the optimized parameters that is speed flow, tablet hardness, tablet friability, floating time and speed release ranitidine HCl

Nutritional, Phytochemical and Carbohydrate Profile of Giant Swamp Taro [Cyrtosperma merkusii (Hassk.). Schott

Giant swamp taro is an underutilized root crop in the Philippines. The nutrient, phytochemicals, and carbohydrate profile of the processed taro from the cultivated and wild varieties were measured and the storage stability of the flour was determined. The boiled taro from cultivated and wild varieties contained approximately 385.67 and 377.29 kcal, respectively. Beta-carotene and vitamin C contents of the boiled and floured products from wild variety were found to be significantly higher than that from the cultivated variety. However, the iron, zinc and calcium in the boiled cultivated variety was significantly higher than its wild variety. The flour produced from the wild variety were significantly higher in iron, zinc and calcium than the cultivated variety. The boiled and floured cultivated taro had significantly higher amounts of phenols and flavonoids while significantly higher amounts of tannins and saponins were measured in the boiled and floured wild taro. The processed products from both local taro varieties had > 75% antioxidant activity. The boiled and floured cultivated taro were found to contain significantly higher amounts of amylose, dietary fiber and resistant starch compared with products from wild taro variety. The glycemic index of processed forms of taro made from the two local varieties had a range of 64-70% (intermediate).

Formulation Of Mucoadhesive Tablets With Fully Gelatinized Modified Daluga (Cyrtosperma Merkusii) Matrix Using Simplex Lattice Design Method

starch could used as ingredient fillers, binders and crushers in tablet manufacture. Amylum is also defined as carbohydrates from from plant, as results photosynthesis, which is stored in part certain plant as backup food starch is mixture two type structure different polysaccharides that is contains (17-20) % amylose and (80-83) % amylopectin. Destination study this is for know the formulation of mucoadhesive tablets with fully gelatinized modified daluga (cyrtosperma merkusii) matrix using simplex lattice design method. Quantitative Test Methods that aim for count yield starch and qualitative tests aimed at for knowing content polysaccharides in starch. Iodine test on amylose will show color blue, and on amylopectin. Character test result data physique granules and tablets as well as release ranitidine of tablets analyzed with using the Design-Expert® software, so that obtained the contour plot of each test results. Determination of the optimum formula begins with determine the optimized parameters that is speed flow, tablet hardness, tablet friability, floating time and speed release ranitidine HCl

Evaluation of ameliorative effects of mature coconut water supplements on Cyrtosperma merkusii root meal included diets for broiler chickens

The simultaneous degradation of essential nutrients is the major drawback in detoxifying anti-nutrient toxic substances of root meal-based diets. An ameliorative dietary supplement for root meal-based diets without undergoing thorough detoxification is proposed. Therefore, this trial aims to determine the effects of mature coconut water (MCW) against the anti-nutritional factors (ANF)-containing C. merkusii root meal diet on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and organoleptic traits of broiler chickens. Cobb 500 (n=160) day-old (male) grouped into the standard diet (commercial maize-soybean) or ANF (15% raw C. merkusii + 85% commercial maize-soybean) diet group, and the birds every group further allocated into 0, 5, 10, and 15% MCW water treatment groups (n=5) with four replications. The trial lasted for 20 D (8 to 28 D of age). In the ANF diet, treatment with MCW significantly differs on feed conversion ratio (FCR). The 5-15% MCW treated chickens were more feed-efficient than the 0% MCW treatment. MCW treatments were not significant on body weight, weight gain, survival, carcass component, and organoleptic traits of broiler chickens under the standard or the ANF diets. However, significant diet*water interactions were observed on BW and dress weight, and significant gizzard weight due to diets. In general, the improved FCR may be the ameliorative effect of mature coconut water against ANF on raw C. merkusii root meal inclusion (15% + 85%) in the standard diets.

Botanical remains of the last 1800 years from Tarawa, Republic of Kiribati, reveal ancient aroid (Cyrtosperma merkusii and Colocasia esculenta) pit cultivation and other cultigens

Recent advances in the study of the antiquity and development of ancient Pacific Island agriculture have been made at sites across much of the region by the application of a range of microfossil techniques, namely analysis of pollen, phytoliths, and starch. Unlike in Melanesia and Polynesia, the application of these techniques in Micronesia is limited. Here we report on microfossil analysis of Micronesian archaeological pit deposits from Tarawa atoll, in the Gilbert Islands (western Kiribati), covering the last 1,800 years. Results show local pit cultivation of Cyrtosperma merkusii and Colocasia esculenta. Together with microfossils of other subsistence taxa, namely Cocos nucifera, Morinda citrifolia, and Pandanus tectorius, and 14C dated macrofossil charcoal of Artocarpus altilis, the evidence is consistent with the atoll subsistence tradition of Remote Oceania. Because plants have differential production and preservation of pollen, phytoliths, and starch, the study shows the value of using combined analyses of these microparts.

Sulawesi endemic tubers and perimedular flour properties an initial consideration for alternative sources for food starch ingredient

North Sulawesi is located in the North-Eastern regions of the Indonesian Archipelago. As it is with most parts of Indonesia, North Sulawesi is dependent on rice as their staple food. Not all islands within the North Sulawesi cluster of islands can grow paddy or corn for their carbohydrate needs or starch ingredients in their diet and must have them shipped from other places with the dire consequences of transportation costs. The endemic biodiversity of these islands also has many plants with the potential as an alternative food carbohydrate source. This study was to explore these endemic plants for potential food ingredients for starch replacements for rice and corn. The many diversities available for these starch ingredients amongst them are tuber sources (Taro – Colocasia esculenta, Dalugha – Cyrtosperma merkusii, Gembili – Discorea esculenta and Banggai – Discorea alata) and perimedular sources (Sago Tanah and Sago Baruk). Many studies have researched these plants individually in various originating from many other parts of the world, but not many have made a head-to-head comparison and explored the potentials of these underutilized plants as starch food ingredients. This study extracted starches of these plants in a standardized manner and compared the properties side-by-side. These plants were found to be potentially healthy alternatives to rice as functional food starch with lower digestibility which would lead to lower GI staples, especially for the livelihoods of North Sulawesi coastal dwellers.

CHEMICAL PROFILING AND ANTIMICROBIAL POTENTIAL OF VOLATILE LEAF OILS ISOLATED FROM THREE MANGROVES GROWING IN RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

Eichhornia crassipes, Pandanus candelabrum and Cyrtosperma merkusii are mangroves from the families Pontederiaceae, Pandanaceae and Areceae, respectively. Volatile oils were obtained from the fresh leaves of these mangroves through hydro distillation. The profiling was achieved through gas chromatography-mass spectrometry while the antimicrobial potential was evaluated against six microorganisms (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger) using the microbroth dilution method. Volatile oils of the mangroves showed good activity against all the tested organisms with minimum inhibitory concentration range of 12.5 - 50 mg/ml. Major components of the volatile oils were trans-13-octadecenoic acid, n-hexadecanoic acid, kaur-16-ene, (E)-camphene, phytol and caryophyllene.

Effect of ginger extract and sugar level in the sensorial quality and acceptability of Sinaging processed from swamp taro (Cyrtosperma chamissonis)

This study aimed to evaluate the sensory quality and acceptability of Sinaging as affected by the different levels of ginger extract and calamay sugar, obtain the optimum combination of ginger extract and calamay sugar, and determine the cost of producing Sinaging. A 3×3 Full Factorial experiment in Completely Randomized Design was employed. Three levels of ginger extract (2, 4, 6 %w/w) and sugar levels (20, 25, 30 %w/w) were the variables considered. Sensory evaluation using quality scoring in combination with the 9-point Hedonic scale was carried out. The results were subjected to statistical analysis using Statistica 8.0 software and Statistical Analytical Software version 9 (SAS 2008). Results revealed that the different levels of sugar and ginger extract significantly affected linearly the flavor, taste, and general acceptability of Sinaging. No significant effect was observed on its color, aroma, texture, and aftertaste. The mean acceptability rating of the different treatments ranged from 7.15 to 7.41 which corresponds to ‘like moderately’ in the 9-point Hedonic scale. The optimum combination was at 4.05% and 28.75% ginger extract and sugar, respectively. The production cost of the optimum formulation was 8.34 pesos per piece weighing 75g of Sinaging.

Macro- and Micronutrients from Traditional Food Plants Could Improve Nutrition and Reduce Non-Communicable Diseases of Islanders on Atolls in the South Pacific.

Pacific Islanders have paid dearly for abandoning traditional diets, with diabetes and other non-communicable diseases (NCD) widespread. Starchy root crops like sweet potato, taro, and cassava are difficult to grow on the potassium-deficient soils of atolls, and high energy, low nutrient imported foods and drinks are popular. Nutritious, leafy food plants adapted to alkaline, salty, coral soils could form part of a food system strategy to reduce NCD rates. This project targeted four atolls south of Tarawa, Kiribati, and was later extended to Tuvalu. Mineral levels in diverse, local leafy food plants were compared to reveal genotype–environment interactions. Food plants varied in ability to accumulate minerals in leaves and in tolerance of mineral-deficient soils. Awareness activities which included agriculture, health, and education officers targeted atoll communities. Agriculture staff grew planting material in nurseries and provided it to farmers. Rejuvenation of abandoned giant swamp taro pits to form diversified nutritious food gardens was encouraged. Factsheets promoted the most suitable species from 24 analyzed, with multiple samples of each. These included Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (chaya), Pseuderanthemum whartonianum (ofenga), Polyscias scutellaria (hedge panax), and Portulaca oleracea (purslane). The promoted plants have been shown in other studies to have anti-NCD effects. Inclusion of the findings in school curricula and practical application in the form of demonstration school food gardens, as well as increased uptake by farmers, are needed. Further research is needed on bioavailability of minerals in plants containing phytates and tannins.

Introducing Daluga (Cyrtosperma merkusii) starch from corms collected in Siau Island, North Sulawesi

Daluga (Cyrtosperma merkusii) found naturally growing at some sites inside Siau Island, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. This plant is an aroid, known as giant swamp taro, and its corm is edible. Very little information known about the plant and corm, and none for its starch. The tendency surfaced is that the plant has been abandoned despite of the corm potency may serve as food source. The same practices also happened around the islands on the same region: even the statistics shown that daluga is excluded from both food expenditure and food crops consideration (BPS 2013). For that reason, this research mainly focus on the study of daluga corm starch that has never been studied or reported before. The major findings are starch yield, chemical composition, and granules morphology studied from scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images. The data shows that daluga starch is unimodal with average size of 12.50 μm and crystalline type A. The average starch yield is 14.70%, and has medium to low amylose content that shall give good mouthfeel taste. These findings shall possibly support more research and utilization of daluga starch, improving people’s knowledge about it, thus it will benefit researchers or islands communities in the future, as it is a natural resource of food found on these islands of Indonesia.

KARAKTERISTIK SIFAT PREBIOTIK TEPUNG DALUGA HASIL MODIFIKASI HEAT MOISTURE TREATMENT

Daluga (Cyrtosperma merkusii. (Hassk.) Schott) is one of tubers originating from Siau Island, Mana do, North Sulawesi. The r esistant starch of daluga can be utilized as a potential source of prebiotic. However, naturally daluga has low resistant starch content and a modification is necessary for improving its content. The aim of the study was to examine the effect of heat moisture treatment (HMT) on the resistant starch content and prebiotic properties of modified daluga flour. The HMT modification was carried out at 121°C for 60 min in an autoclave, and the modifi ed flour was then compared with the untreated native flour (TD). T he results showed that autoclaved TD-HMT flour had 8.81% higher resistant starch content as compared to that of TD. The increment also affected the prebiotic characteristics of the modified flour. The TD-HMT showed resistan t to gastric acid up to 92%, augmentations of prebiotic activity, index and effect, as well as L. plantarum BSL growth improvement up to 3 log CFU/mL. The gastric acid resistan t autoclaved TD-HMT is able to stimulate probiotic LAB growth, confirming its prebiotic potential for acid bacteria fermentation.

Earliest Evidence for Pit Cultivation Provides Insight on the Nature of First Polynesian Settlement

First Polynesian settlement by Lapita peoples occurred ca 2850 cal BP at Nukuleka, then a small sandy islet at the entrance to the lagoon on the island of Tongatapu, Kingdom of Tonga. Recent studies document the presence of a planting pit here where, with interception of the Ghyben-Herzberg freshwater lens and use of organic mulch, aroids could be grown. Original pit excavation is dated to first landfall or shortly thereafter. Dates further indicate the pit was filled between 2690 and 2390 cal BP. The saturated mulch, combined with coralline sand in the pit-bottom, resulted in a gray-brown silty-sand planting matrix. Microfossil analysis of these sediments have identified Oceanic cultigens, including giant swamp taro (Cyrtosperma merkusii), taro (Colocasia esculenta), banana (Musa sp.), candle nut (Aleurites moluccana), pandanus (Pandanus tectorius), and coconut (Cocos nucifera). Also present in the matrix are large numbers of Lapita ceramic sherds, these probably added for moisture retention and, possibly, nutrients as they degrade. The planting pit is the earliest recorded evidence for this type of cultivation in Oceania. It illustrates an ingenious exploration strategy for Lapita peoples that is well adapted to most types of islands they would encounter.

Formulation of Areca Nut Tablet using Cassava Starch and Swamp Taro Starch as Disintegrant: A Comparative Study

Objectives: This study formulated a tablet using cassava and swamp taro starch as disintegrant and areca nut as active anthelmintic agent; the tablet was manually compacted and its physical, mechanical and disintegrating properties were determined. Methods/Statistical Analysis: Experimental design was utilized wherein two tablet formulations were subjected to physical, mechanical and disintegrating tests. Physical properties include color, density, odor, pH and solubility; mechanical property of the tablet was also tested in terms of hardness and friability; and disintegrating property was determined using simulated gastric fluid and simulated intestinal fluid. T-test was used to determine significant difference in terms of disintegration of the two tablets using IBM SPSS version 21. Findings: Results showed that the color and odor of both tablets are brown with white specks and odorless, respectively. Both tablets were insoluble to organic and inorganic solvents, but are slightly soluble to alcoholic medium; moreover, both tablets possess the same pH of 6.0. Friability tests showed high friability and a low compressive strength or hardness. Further statistical computations in terms of disintegration showed that cassava starch-based tablet is more rapid in disintegrating than swamp taro starch-based tablet regardless of simulated fluid. Application/Improvements: These findings indicate that cassava starch can be used as disintegrant, also this also highlights that direct compaction or manual compaction method of tableting gives a tablet lower hardness and higher friability. This study suggests cassava starch is more suitable as disintegrant than swamp taro, and that both starches can be used for veterinary drug development.