Ghost Fishing Research Articles

Haunting the Ganges: addressing the issues of ghost gear in the Ganga River through an incentive-based institutional mechanism

Abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gears, also known as ghost gears (GG), are major contributors to global marine and freshwater plastic pollution. GG can lead to the accidental entanglement of several threatened freshwater and marine species, especially the air-breathing aquatic vertebrates, which is a matter of global concern. There is a lack of know-how and mechanisms for collecting and recycling GG, leading to their constant accumulation in aquatic ecosystems. In this study, we have examined the mortalities of threatened aquatic species in fishing nets and have proposed an incentive-based standard operating procedure (SOP) for effective collection and disposal of GG based on field observations and extant national and international policies and made recommendations for a net buyback scheme as a possible downstream solution to reduce GG in the Ganga River Basin. It is proposed that the collection of GG can be done by the local level institutions of fishing community through the fair-price shops. The nets are then to be deposited at the block-level processing centres to be transported to the district-level consolidating centres. Recycling partners identified by the Government of India will then collect the nets directly from district centres for further upcycling and recycling. A multi-level, multi-stakeholder approach with strong upstream and downstream linkages backed with appropriate policy interventions is needed to tackle the ghost gear issue in the Ganga River basin.

Comparative degradation behavior of polybutylene succinate (PBS), used PBS, and PBS/Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) blend fibers in compost and marine–sediment interfaces

Amid increasing concerns over microplastic pollution and the persistence of nonbiodegradable polymers in the ocean, this study evaluates the biodegradability of polybutylene succinate (PBS)-based fishing gear under different conditions: pristine PBS fibers, PBS fibers utilized in fishing (PBS_used), and PBS fibers blended with 10% polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). By simulating compost and marine–sediment interface environments with reference to ISO 14855 and ISO 19679 standards, respectively, we aimed not only to assess the degradation performance of these fibers but also to examine the physical and chemical property changes pre and postdegradation. PBS, PBS_used, and PBS/PHA (9:1) fibers exhibited degradation rates of 31.9%, 35.5%, and 39.5% in compost environments, and 20.3%, 22.1%, and 25.9% at the seawater–sediment interface, respectively. Through comprehensive physicochemical analyses involving molecular weight measurement, field emission–scanning electron microscope, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, tensile property evaluation, and thermogravimetric analysis, the degradation behavior of PBS-based fibers depending on the degradation environment was compared. This study suggests that PBS-based fishing gear can biodegrade under various conditions encountered in the actual fishing sector, thereby preventing ghost fishing and mitigating the issue of abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear.

Influence of knot strength on the mechanical performance of a biodegradable gillnet

Ghost fishing is a global issue that can be addressed using fishing gear materials that do not persist in the marine environment. However, for these alternatives to be widely adopted, they must meet the same mechanical specifications as current commercial materials while degrading without any negative impact. The objective of this study was to compare a conventional gillnet made of polyamide 6 (PA6) with an alternative made of poly(butylene succinate-co-adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBSAT) at three different scales: monofilament, knot, and net. While the PBSAT monofilament’s strength was half that of the conventional PA6 net, knot and net losses were even more significant. This indicates a greater sensitivity of the material to the knot. Since the results between the knot and net scales were coherent, testing whole net panels is not necessary. Studying the curvature and the behaviour of the knot revealed its complex geometry and mechanical behaviour. Testing the weaver’s knot is a good indicator for studying the relevance of an alternative to conventional fishing gear materials. This should be considered when developing biodegradable nets in order to reduce ghost fishing at sea.

The scientific literature on coralligenous habitat and fishing impacts

Among marine habitats, the coralligenous represents one of the most important biodiversity hotspots, also playing an important role in the carbon cycle. Coralligenous is a biogenic habitat of the circalittoral zone formed by calcareous structures built by crustose coralline algae and other assemblages of calcifying organisms. Due to its structural complexity, it is also considered one of the most vulnerable marine habitats, very sensitive to environmental changes, such as climate change, and to other anthropogenic impacts such as fishing activities. Trawling is the most harmful fishing method that is causing the degradation of large areas of coralligenous reef concretions. Small-scale and sport fishing can also cause damage to the most sensitive organisms of the coralligenous habitat that can be damaged or removed by fishing gear, both during the fishing activity and in the case of the involuntary abandonment of stranded or damaged fishing nets, also known as “ghost nets”. In this study, the global scientific literature on coralligenous habitat was explored, with a particular focus on human impacts and fishing activities. The analysis was carried out using the VOSviewer software, generating network maps based on literature data retrieved from the Scopus database. The results show that the scientific literature is mainly concentrated in Italy, proving the important contribution provided by the Italian research on the topic. The results also highlight a research gap in the application of environmental accounting methods to quantify and value natural capital and ecosystem services associated to the coralligenous habitat, and their loss due to human impacts.

Using Biodegradable Materials in Crab Pots to Mitigate Ghost Fishing Effects

The modification of crab traps using biodegradable cotton rope, particularly on panel ropes and trap mouth ropes, aims to reduce the impact of ghost fishing. While the characteristics of cotton rope have been tested in the laboratory, they have not been directly tested in field fishing operations. This research aims to analyze cotton ropes' technical use and damage levels, compare crab catches in control and modified traps, and provide recommendations for fishermen to use modified traps. Experimental fishing involved operating 500 units of modified traps with cotton ropes and 500 units of control traps used by fishermen. The trap operations were conducted over 30 trips in Gebang Mekar, Cirebon Regency, and West Java, Indonesia. The results indicate that the modified and control traps use the same operating techniques and damage levels. The crab catches in the modified traps reached 1101 individuals with a total weight of 130.9 kg, not significantly different from the control traps, which reached 1110 individuals with a total weight of 129.8 kg (p > 0.05, T-test). Based on technical use, damage levels, and catch results, fishermen can use modified traps made from cotton rope as an effective alternative to prevent ghost fishing in crab trap fisheries.

Incidence of ghost nets in the Tioman Island Marine Park of Malaysia

Ghost nets are major contributor to ocean pollution with extensive social, economic and environmental impacts. Ghost nets trap marine life, build up sediment, and smother and damage sensitive bottom habitats such as coral reefs and seagrass beds. Data on ghost nets are widely available for many coastal locations but there has been very limited information from Malaysia specifically Tioman Island. In 2015, Reef Check Malaysia started training local islanders to locate and remove ghost nets from reefs and beaches around Tioman Island. A reporting hotline was set up to gather information on ghost nets. Once vital information was gathered, the local islanders retrieved them and recorded the ghost nets and sent them for proper disposal. A total of 145 ghost nets weighing over 21 t were retrieved from Tioman Island from 2016 to 2022. The volume of ghost nets retrieved showed an increasing trend and were often found in March, April and September. The ghost nets originated from fishermen operating illegally inside the marine protected area (MPA) and legal fishermen operating outside the MPA. Ghost nets find their way to Tioman Island with strong currents and monsoonal winds. Most of the ghost nets retrieved were inside the MPA and on the western side of Tioman Island. Higher human population, shallower waters, shoreline morphology, dominant coral growth design and reef rugosity on the western side of Tioman Island are reasons for higher ghost nets sightings, thus retrieval and management efforts should focus on this side.

The role of tuna-RFMOs in combating ‘ghost fishing’: Where is the Catch?

The multifaceted impacts of ‘ghost fishing’ are currently representing severe threats to the marine environment, with detrimental effects on ecosystems, species, and habitats. This article examines whether and how the tuna-RFMOs have implemented legal obligations applicable to minimize catch by abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear through a systematic assessment of all their adopted conservation and management measures between 2000 and 2023. The study yields several findings, including that two of the organizations at present have not adopted any measures to minimize catch by lost, abandoned, or otherwise discarded fishing gear, and that there generally exists considerable gaps between what is required as a matter of international law regulating fishing gear, and the efforts currently taken by the tuna-RFMOs to minimize ‘ghost fishing.’

Addressing illegal longlining and ghost fishing in the Galapagos marine reserve: an overview of challenges and potential solutions

Despite regulations aimed at curbing shark finning and bycatch, shark fishing mortality rates continue to escalate, partly due to unintended consequences of these policies which, along with illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing and ghost fishing, undermine conservation efforts. The ineffectiveness of current regulations to curb shark mortality highlights the pressing need for reevaluating shark conservation strategies, especially in ecologically sensitive areas. In this context, the debate on enforcing longlining bans in multiple-use marine protected areas, including shark sanctuaries, is intensifying. Some argue for total bans to minimize incidental shark mortalities, while others highlight the socioeconomic importance of longlining, advocating for alternative conservation measures. In 2000, longline fishing was banned in the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) as a precautionary measure to prevent illegal fishing of sharks and bycatch of endangered, threatened, and protected species. After 24 years of enforcement, official and anecdotal evidence indicate that illegal small-scale tuna longlining and ghost fishing are increasing threats across the reserve. This paper provides an overview of the longline fishing controversy within the GMR, incorporating scientific evidence, legal and socioeconomic considerations, and perceptions from the Galapagos small-scale fishing community. We offer novel insights and recommendations for the development of the Galapagos small-scale tuna fishery within an ecosystem approach to fisheries. This approach aims to reconcile conservation goals with the needs of local communities, while also proposing innovative solutions to address the longstanding debate surrounding longlining in the GMR.

Advocating for Ecoartivism: Sculpting sustainable choice with nature-based solutions

This paper presents the term Ecoartivism, for a novel nature-based strategy to address ecocide. Ecoartivism evolved from my ecoart practice, which sought pragmatic answers to chaotic environmental conditions. I advocate for how Ecoartivism draws from many influences to embrace a more intuitive but sustainable relationship between art, science, and law based on our values. I will track how my practice began layering basic aesthetic skills with science to restore degraded ecosystems, (Ghost Nets and Blue Rocks 1990–2005); inspired an original premise, trigger point theory, that small points of deliberate intervention can effect systemic change; and led to an Ecoartivist symphony and then an opera, (Blued Trees (2015 - present). My thinking has felt informed by Traditional Environmental Knowledge (TEK) and what some Indigenous communities term reciprocity, the idea that humans must live with mutual respect and as part of an inclusive vision of nature. Blued Trees developed a novel legal theory about ownership and what we choose to value. That redefinition led to Ecoartivism as a nature-based solution to sustainability. GPS located sentinel trees were identified as tree-notes in an aerial "score" composed of 1/3-mile increments across North America in forested corridors where natural gas pipeline installations were proposed. In a 2018 mock trial an injunction was handed down in favor of protecting the Blued Trees project on the basis of standing (a legal term establishing formal rights for due consideration in a court trial). I will explain how trigger point theory could support legal standing for Earth rights and ecosystem resilience. Blued Trees continues as an opera-in-progress to expand and deepen arguments for making ecocide accountable with serious penalties at the International Court of Justice at the Hague. This discussion will illustrate how ecoartivist strategies may support habitat contiguity, inspire and drive novel nature-based solutions to ecocide, deepening partnerships with scientists who can test and build on provocative insight.

Abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear in coastal fisheries: A case study in the Baltic Sea coastal waters of Latvia

Abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) is considered a problem of global concern which can cause considerable negative environmental and socioeconomic consequences. Due to use of slowly degrading plastic materials in fishing gear construction, ALDFG can remain in marine environment for decades. Enclosed marine environments are particularly vulnerable for all types of pollution and anthropogenic effects, including pollution resulting from ALDFG. However, the extent of this problem is often not estimated. We estimated the level of ALDFG accumulated in a semi-enclosed coastal marine environment in the Gulf of Riga and along coastal areas of the Baltic Sea which are particularly susceptible to different types of marine pollution, including ALDFG. We based our results on a pragmatic approach of using existing ALDFG estimates. The results showed a potentially considerable amount of derelict fishing gear accumulated over the last decade, specifically gillnets and entangling nets and trap gear (2762 netting sheets (CI: 969–4976) and 1379 lost traps (CI: 473–2337)). Therefore, this study highlights the need for the fisheries management to implement adequate ALDFG monitoring mechanisms and subsequent clean-up operations to limit continuous pollution and ghost fishing.

Degradation mechanisms in PBSAT nets immersed in seawater

Fishing gears are known to continue fishing after being abandoned, lost, or discarded through a phenomenon called ghost fishing. After this ghost fishing period, disintegrated nets contribute to plastic pollution. Biodegradable nets could be an alternative to conventional nets to reduce ghost fishing but must strike a delicate balance between durability and degradation. This study evaluates the seawater degradation of a net made of polybutylene(succinate-co-adipate-co-terepthalate) (PBSAT) at several scales: monofilament, knot, and net. Mechanical testing was used to monitor the strength at each scale during immersion at several temperatures: 4 °C, 15 °C, 25 °C, 40 °C. Steric exclusion chromatography (SEC), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray tomography were used to investigate degradation processes. While no degradation was observed for samples immersed for 240 days at 4 °C, hydrolysis led to embrittlement at 40 °C. Biotic degradation was observed at both 15 °C and 25 °C with distinct degradation patterns and bacteria shapes. At both temperatures, the degradation was accelerated in the knot, leading to an unusable net after 240 days at 15 °C while no loss of strength was detected at the monofilament scale. These findings suggest that the durability of the knot is critical for successful development of a biodegradable polymer for application in gillnets.

Retrieval operations of derelict fishing gears give insight on the impact on marine life

Abandoned, lost and discarded fishing gear (ALDFG), significantly impacts marine ecosystems and biodiversity by incidental capture known as ghost fishing. Such impacts were quantified during the Norwegian Directorate of Fisheries' annual ALDFG cleanup operation in September 2023 by examining the characteristics of retrieved ALDFG and recording the taxonomically sorted catch abundance and biomass. A total of 307 specimens equaling 382 kg of biomass were caught in the recovered gillnets and king crab pots. Gillnets exhibited a 27.3 % greater catch abundance and 50.3 % higher biomass per ALDFG unit mass compared to king crab pots. Margalef, Menhinick, Simpson, Shannon, and Pielou diversity indices showed a more pronounced impact on species richness and biodiversity associated with recovered gillnets. This study introduces an approach to assess the impact of ghost fishing on ecosystems and biodiversity through ALDFG retrieval operations, instrumental in developing estimates of the total ghost fishing capture by ALDFG.

Marine Stewardship Council’s Fisheries Standard: Updated best practices for promoting sustainable seafood

Eco-labeling can incentivize effective management to sustain productive fisheries, but certification standards occasionally need to be updated to reflect iterative advancement in marine policy. The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) recently developed a revised standard for fishery certification, and the process provides case studies in policy development that are compiled in this special issue. Consultation with a broad group of international stakeholders identified several aspects of the MSC standard that required re-evaluation. Standards, expressed as performance indictors and scoring criteria, were revised based on current perceptions of best practices in fishery management. The revised standard requires greater evidence of management performance, more rigorous protection of endangered species and vulnerable habitats, more comprehensive mitigation of ghost fishing, explicit harvest strategies, more effective exclusion of shark finning, and socioeconomic performance indicators. Although the implementation of certification standards will continue to be imperfect, the process and results from MSC’s standard review offer methods and case studies for broader application to codify best practices in marine policy as they continually evolve.

Enabling transition thinking on complex issues (wicked problems): A framework for future circular economic transitions of plastic management in the Norwegian fisheries and aquaculture sectors.

In the 21st Century, marine plastic pollution emerges as a prominent wicked issue, posing threats to planetary boundaries, biological and anthropogenic systems. Such complex and multiscale issues significantly contribute to the degradation of our land and ocean ecosystem. For example, loss of aquatic life due to ghost fishing or microplastic pollution from broken-down plastics in the oceans. These 'wicked societal issues' can no longer be resolved through our existing societal structures and methods. The aquaculture and fisheries sectors are significant contributors to plastic marine debris globally. However, research and practices on this matter have been fragmented, siloed, and often limited to specific value chain sections (material science, waste). If more sustainable circular practices are to be realised in the use and management of plastic in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors, interdisciplinary-cross sector co-operation is required, which addresses such global issues at the local level. Using Norway and early findings from the SHIFTPLASTICs project as a case study, this paper presents how interdisciplinary co-production framed by the Systems Design Approach + has enabled creative spaces whereby: 1) a clear identification of the most problematic areas of plastic pollution across the whole service model value chain, and, 2) targeted measures in enabling the transition to more sustainable circular practices and plastic pollution mitigation in the sectors. Key findings include the logic, development, application, and outcomes of the SDA + methodological approach. This includes enabling interdisciplinary co-development and critiquing the Norwegian service model value chain of plastic pollution in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors. The identification and potential solutions in tackling 16-plastic pollution ‘hot spots’ of the most problematic plastic-based products for the sectors. We conclude that the Systems Design Approach + framework, as undertaken, has enabled collaborative spaces and interactions suitable to generate knowledge, insights, tool development, and creativity in pursuit of innovation and circular transitions for these wicked societal issue. This approach has potential for scalability.

Ghost fishing efficiency in swimming crab (Portunus trituberculatus) pot fishery

Abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) is a global challenge that negatively affects marine environment through plastic pollution and continued capture of marine animals, so-called “ghost fishing”. In different pot fisheries, ghost fishing related to ALDFG is of concern, including pot fishery targeting swimming crab (Portunus trituberculatus). This study quantified the ghost fishing efficiency by comparing it to the catch efficiency of actively fished pots of the commercial fishery. The results showed that the ghost fishing affects both target and bycatch species. On average, the ghost fishing pots captured 12.53 % (confidence intervals: 10.45 %–15.00 %) undersized crab and 15.70 % (confidence intervals: 12.08 %–20.74 %) legal-sized crab compared to the actively fished pots. Few individuals of several bycatch species were also captured by ghost fishing pots. The results of this study emphasized the need to develop new management strategies for reducing marine pollution by ALDFG and associated negative effects in this pot fishery.

Ghost Fishing Threatens Biodiversity in an African Great Lake

We conducted an investigation into ghost fishing, a phenomenon in which abandoned fishing equipment remains operational for extended durations, in the southern region of Lake Tanganyika, Republic of Zambia. The perils associated with ghost fishing have achieved international recognition; however, there exists a conspicuous dearth of scholarly investigations in particular regions, notably inland aquatic environments and developing countries. Employing scuba diving for field observations, we discovered that ghost fishing was solely evident in monofilament nylon nets, despite the presence of four different net types in the littoral area of the lake. Notably, endemic crabs Platythelphusa armata and P. maculata from Lake Tanganyika constituted 65.2% of the organisms captured by abandoned nets, with the remainder comprising various fish species. The number of captured organisms exhibited a dependence on the interplay between the length and mesh size of the abandoned nets, indicating that the risk of ghost fishing is heightened when both net and mesh size are substantial. Furthermore, we encountered predatory Spiny Eels Mastacembelus moorii ensnared in nets around their jaws and teeth. Intriguingly, the digestive tract of one of the Spiny Eels contained a partially digested cichlid species entangled in the same nets, strongly suggesting the occurrence of secondary ghost fishing.

Mimicking real-field degradation of biodegradable plastics in soil and marine environments: From product utility to end-of-life analysis

Biodegradable plastics can mitigate plastic waste issues by undergoing hydrolysis and microbial digestion. However, biodegradable plastics face unjust accusations of not decomposing in natural environments, including barren soil or cold oceans, under unsuitable conditions. In this study, we simulated end-of-life of biodegradable plastic products under real-field soil and seawater conditions. Replenishing vermicompost in horticultural topsoil (3:7 wt ratio) activated microbial growth, resulting in significant degradation. In fertile soil, polycaprolactone (PCL) and poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) required fewer than 6-months, for complete degradation, while poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) with more than 51 mol% terephthalate content was rarely degraded. In an artificial seawater aquarium, PCL degraded at the rate of 30 μm per month. The degradation of bioplastics enclosed in coarse nets was superior to that in fine nets, owing to higher aeration and water circulation. Sea waves and current significantly accelerated the rate of PCL-degradation to 89 μm per month in a coastal marine environment; the ranking of rate of decomposition was PCL > PBS > PBAT. After 12 months of biodegradation, the tensile strength and elongation of a 2 mm-thick sample of PCL decreased to 15 MPa and almost 0 %, respectively. 3D-printed jars, designed for octopus fishing, is widely used and its designed mechanical decay aids in preventing the ghost fishing of abandoned gear as demonstrated by artificial conches, illustrating the potential for biodegradable fishing gear.

Estimating global numbers of fishes caught from the wild annually from 2000 to 2019.

Finfishes are caught from the wild for food, feed (often in the form of fishmeal and oil) and bait. According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), between 74 and 83 million tonnes (averaging 77 million tonnes) were caught annually in 2000-2019. Although fishes are now widely recognised as sentient beings, capture is still quantified as biomass rather than number of individuals (in contrast to wild-caught marine mammals and crocodiles; and farmed mammals and birds). Here, we estimate global numbers of wild-caught finfishes using FAO capture production (landing) tonnages (2000-2019 data) and estimates of mean individual weight at capture, based on internet-sourced capture and market weights. We estimate that between 1,100 and 2,200 billion (1.1-2.2 × 1012), or 1.1-2.2 trillion, wild finfishes were caught annually, on average, during 2000-2019. Anchoveta (Engraulis ringens) comprised 28%, by estimate midpoint. Estimated numbers in 2019, totalling 980-1,900 billion, were lower due to reduced anchoveta landings, but still represented 87.5% of vertebrate numbers killed for food or feed, as obtained or estimated from FAO data. These figures exclude unrecorded capture such as illegal fishing, discards and ghost fishing. Estimated finfish numbers used for reduction to fishmeal and oil represented 56% of the total 2010 estimate (1,000-1,900 billion), by midpoint. It is recommended that the FAO reports fish capture numbers. The welfare of wild-caught fishes, which is generally very poor during and after capture, should be addressed as part of sustainable utilisation of aquatic resources.

Don’t miss the big fish! Operational accounting of two major drivers of marine biodiversity loss in LCA of seafood products

Impact of fishing activities on marine biodiversity lacks important impact pathways in Life cycle Assessment. We develop Biomaris, a novel LCA-based way of accounting for multifunctionality of fisheries through the “fishnet approach” that includes various species in the fishnet and allocates impacts between co-products at landing. Biomaris adds two important LCIA pathways: resource depletion and seabed impact and uses the ecosystem quality endpoint of LC Impact. Impact pathways are grouped to display impacts for 4 drivers of biodiversity loss: direct exploitation, land and sea-use change, climate change, and pollution. It is applied to a business case study of a fishery of saithe (Pollachius virens) with bottom trawling. Case study at landing shows that impact on seabed is substantial (1×10−9PDF.year/kgliveweight), and that resource depletion and climate change are of similar order of magnitude (2×10−14PDF.year/kgliveweight), the pollution driver being less important. Case study also displays impact of processed product at distribution (Climate change impact: 6×10−14PDF.year/kgnetweight). As of now, despite drivers being expressed in the same unit (PDF.yr), aggregating them is not advised, as, depending on driver, unit concretely represent different level of species disappearance, either (eco)regional or global. There are still important missing impact pathways to comprehensively assess impacts on biodiversity of seafood products (e.g., ghost fishing, plastic pollution, …), but Biomaris displays practical guidance to account, to our knowledge, for the most up-to-date science in the LCA domain.

Mitigation approach of plastic and microplastic pollution through recycling of fishing nets at the end of life

Plastic and microplastic pollution in the marine environment is a global issue and lost or discarded fishing nets (FNs) represent a relevant part of the marine litter. This type of waste is very harmful to marine organisms due to ghost fishing and microplastics release. Furthermore, nets are difficult to dispose because they take up a lot of space at landfill sites and are expensive to transport. Therefore, the development of recovery and recycling strategies represents one of the solutions for this problem. In the present work, a multifilament, knotted, twisted waste FN, composed of nylon 6,6, was recycled realizing composite materials in combination with recycled expanded polystyrene (EPS) or poly(acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) (ABS) matrices. The composites were realized exploiting a cold mixing approach, mixing the FN, either as a pre-ground short fiber filler or as mats, with the polymers swollen in an organic solvent. Several compositions were explored by these approaches and the composites were characterized by means of thermal, spectroscopic, mechanical and morphological analyses. Finally, a qualitative assessment of the economic impact of fishing net recycling was conducted. Results showed that the proposed recycling approaches allow to realize composite materials with interesting properties, opening new routes for recycling the FNs at the end of life improving the circular economy of plastics and reducing their ecological, ecosystem service and social and economic impacts.