Ghana Water Company Research Articles

Households’ access and expenditure on water services: Examining intra-urban differences in the Accra metropolis, Ghana

Despite years of investment into the water sector in Ghana, access to and expenditure on potable water for drinking and domestic use remain a challenge for most urban households. However, within the urban context, the severity of water challenges varies from one residential community to another, with less research attention often given to such intra-urban differences. To address this gap, this study examines differences in household access and expenditure on pipe-borne water in three varying socio-economic residential communities in Accra. The study used a convergent mixed method design and drew on secondary literature, to examine the differences in households' access to and expenditure on water. The findings revealed that Jamestown, a low-income residential community, had the lowest connection to the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) grid, with many respondents depending on pipe-borne water outside dwellings operated by private water retailers. While the findings showed no significant differences in the regularity of flow and expenditure on water among the three varying socio-economic communities, the paper argues that low-income communities such as Jamestown are likely to be more affected due to existing socio-economic deprivation and vulnerability contexts. Based on the study findings, we recommend that efforts be made to increase investment in water infrastructure to enable households to connect to the GWCL grid. Attention should also be given to low-income households, who often lack the means to pay for services that will enable them to connect to the GWCL grid. Further, we recommend improved collaboration between local communities and GWCL as a way of fostering strategies that address the peculiar water challenges in local communities.

Groundwater quality and potential analysis using geospatial techniques: The case of Ashanti Region in Ghana

The ecosystem and economy's reliance on clean water is influenced by various factors such as geology, topography, soil types, activities, and the presence of plants and animals. The Ghana Water Company is encountering difficulties in delivering water to consumers in the Ashanti Region due to the shortage of surface water resources, leading to water rationing in the area. Furthermore, poor waste disposal practices, illegal mining, use of fertilizers, and industrial activities have resulted in surface and groundwater source damage. Therefore, there is a need to implement a reliable, simple, and timely method to assess groundwater quality. This study aims to employ GIS and RS techniques to evaluate groundwater quality and potential in the Ashanti Region, Ghana. The Water Quality Index (WQI) was estimated using pH, Total Dissolve Solid (TDS), Chloride, Total Hardness (TH), Nitrate, Temperature, Turbidity, Iron, and Electrical Conductivity (EC). The study then used the WQI distribution to conduct a groundwater potential analysis to identify suitable areas for borehole placement. Digital thematic layers and maps were developed to expose the spatial distribution of water quality parameters, enabling the identification of groundwater pollution control and remedial measures. The study estimated the region's groundwater potential using an integrated GIS and Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) technique, grouping under excellent, good, fair, and poor potential. The WQI in the Ashanti Region ranged from 5.208 to 134.232, with 32.252% of the study area having an excellent WQI and 60.168% of the study area having a good WQI. Poor water quality covered 7.550% of the study area. The results showed that the GIS-based AHP approach accurately mapped the spatial distribution of WQI and Groundwater Potential Zones (GWPZ). This information is helpful to planners in water resource management in groundwater exploration and future planning. Policymakers and stakeholders must ensure that groundwater sources are protected from pollution.

An IoT-Based Water Leakage Detection and Localization System

In this research, we present a proposed Internet of Things based model, which we have named iWaLDeL, for the detection and localization of water leakages which we simulated for the Ghana Water Company (GWC) pipe network, using YF-S201 Flow Rate Sensors and Static Leak Detection techniques. Through an extensive review of existing methods, the research highlights the limitations of traditional detection approaches and emphasizes the potential of modern technologies. The iWaLDeL system harnesses the power of IoT devices, deploying an array of strategically placed sensors capable of detecting leakages and pressure variations. These sensors form a distributed network which communicates with a central hub, ensuring comprehensive coverage of the monitored area. Crucially, the research delves into the innovative aspect of leak localization. By combining data from multiple sensors and pipes, the system can estimate the precise location of a leakage following a mathematical model we developed. This localization capability significantly reduces the time required for maintenance teams to address leakage issues, minimizing water loss and further damages. To validate its effectiveness, the system was prototyped and tested, which demonstrated a successful leak detection and localization, showcasing its adaptability in both residential and commercial settings. The system’s seamless integration with existing smart infrastructure enhances its feasibility for real-world implementation.

Self-supply groundwater in five communities: Moshie Zongo, Aboabo, Kotei, Ayeduase and Apemso in Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana

Self-supply water has been acknowledged as a viable alternative to meeting the water needs of inhabitants. This study was designed to determine the main issues that influence self-supply water coverage in five (5) communities in the Kumasi Metropolis. The research employed a well-structured questionnaires and a total of 369 households were surveyed. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26 and Microsoft Excel (2016) tools were used to analyse the data. The outcomes of the research show that a greater number of the respondents (77 %) did not have connections to the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) distribution system. Approximately, 69 % of respondents had access to alternative water sources with mechanized boreholes forming the majority (32 %). However, a greater number of the respondents (64 %) did not disinfect their water to make it potable. The most favourable drinking water source for a greater number of the residents (51 %) was sachet water. The study showed there was a significant association between respondents' type or source of water with religion (p < 0.000), household size (p < 0.000), duration of stay (p = 0.026) and number of dependents (p = 0.006). However, there was no association between type or source of water with educational level (p = 0.130), occupation (p = 0.310), income level (p = 0.139) and type of home (p = 0.102). This study revealed that self-supply is contributing to the water needs of some residents in Kumasi and could contribute to the country's accomplishment of SDG 6.1 if residents ensure that it is safely managed. To broaden the scope of the study and the impact of self-supply groundwater, additional studies should be conducted in other communities, as well as the extent of other beneficiaries who have access to self-supply facilities other than the owners.

Development of a tool to support operationalising water safety plans: experiences from a national water utility in Ghana.

Since their incorporation into the 2004 version of the World Health Organization's (WHO's) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality (GDWQ), Water Safety Plans (WSPs) continue to be the pre-eminent process for the delivery of safe drinking water to consumers. WSPs achieve this by prioritising proactive, rather than reactive, management of risks to drinking water quality. Since the use of WSPs was incorporated into the GDWQ, a range of supporting resources have been produced to assist water suppliers in preparing WSPs. Producing a robust WSP is an important first step in the management of risk, but in many cases, the implementation of WSPs presents significant challenges, particularly in relation to the implementation of Module 5 (implementing improvements) and Module 6 (monitoring of control measures). To address barriers to WSP implementation, the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL), in a peer-to-peer partnership with two Australian water utilities, developed a pilot WSP implementation strategy for one of the company's drinking water supply systems. One of the outputs of the collaboration was the development of a framework for operationalising water safety planning, which incorporates basic guidance for embedding the WSP within routine operations, in order to ensure the safe management of drinking water.

Mechanistic interaction between climate variables rainfall and temperature on surface water quality and water treatment costs at the Barekese Headworks, Ghana: A time series analysis and water quality index modelling approach

Extreme rainfall and temperatures are climate variables that threaten global water supplies and surface water quality (SWQ). To understand how rainfall and temperature interact with surface water quality and water treatment costs, this study, unlike previous ones, uses time series analysis (TSA) and water quality index (WQI) modelling to fill significant research gaps. The study uses data from the Barekese Water Treatment Headworks, Ghana. Water quality data from 2000 to 2019 for the Barekese Headworks were obtained from the Ghana Water Company Limited. Rainfall data for the catchment was obtained from the Ghana Meteorological Agency. The Mann-Kendall statistical test for trend and the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) water quality index was applied to data sets. The Mann-Kendall trend test showed no significant change in annual temperatures. An increasing trend for annual rainfall was observed, but this was not statistically significant (Z = 0.21). Sen's slope estimator (Q) showed that rainfall increases at 3.03 mm annually. pH correlated negatively with rainfall (r = - 0.15). Correlations were observed between rainfall and temperature and dissolved oxygen (DO), turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Nitrate (NO3−), Phosphate (PO43−), and Manganese (Mn). Rainfall was observed to increase the cost of liming, coagulation, and disinfection. A 20.26% deterioration in SWQ was observed from 2009 to 2019. The SWQ over the period under study and according to the CCME water quality index was 80% marginal, 10% fair and 10% poor. The findings reveal that the concurrent use of TSA and WQI modelling can help elucidate how rainfall and temperature interact with SWQ and water treatment costs. It further contributes knowledge to attaining the Africa Union Agenda 2063 on climate resilience and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 6 and 6.3 on universal water access and quality improvement.

Local‐level water conservation and management practices in rural communities: A case study in Dormaa Municipality, Bono Region, Ghana

AbstractStudies on water conservation strategies and local approaches to water resource management among rural people in Ghana and sub‐Saharan Africa are scarce. This study examined water conservation and management practices among rural communities in Dormaa Municipality. We adopted a concurrent mixed‐method approach using both quantitative and qualitative methods. The quantitative and qualitative data were analysed using SPSS and ATLAS.ti, respectively. Binary logistic regression was used to predict the factors associated with the conservation of improved sources of water and reliability of water management by Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL). The findings show that 84.4% of the respondents conserve improved sources of water, and 83.6% do not rely on the management of water by the GWCL. Binary logistic regression shows that education, household size and income were significantly associated with the conservation of improved sources of water, while age, marital status and ownership of a house were associated with the reliability of water management by GWCL. Some of the challenges encountered in water management are the unavailability of persons committed to the management of boreholes and the non‐payment of electricity bills. The study recommends policy intervention in technical and material support for effective water conservation and management in rural communities.

Economic evaluation of groundwater resource in the Effutu Municipality: An application of the Gisser-Sanchez effect

This study presents an economic valuation of the groundwater resource in the Effutu Municipality. It tests the validity of the Gisser-Sanchez's position that the benefits derived from implementing a groundwater management intervention are insignificantly small compared to when no intervention is made. Hundred groundwater-user households were sampled by quota, convenience, and simple random sampling techniques. Assuming a quantitative approach, a contingent valuation-based willingness to pay questionnaire was used for data collection. Respondents were asked to value groundwater under two regimes based on quality: (1) unmanaged quality and (2) hypothetically-managed quality regimes. Using the Lancaster demand theory, the values assigned under either regime were assumed as the benefits users would derive from using groundwater. The statistical difference between the benefits of the two regimes was established by the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test. The findings revealed that groundwater users are willing to pay 20 Pesewas (GH₵ 0.2) and 30 Pesewas (GH₵ 0.3), respectively, for a 10 L bucket of groundwater from the unmanaged quality regime and groundwater from the hypothetically-managed quality regime. The study established a statistically significant difference between the economic values of groundwater under either regime, indicating that the Gisser-Sanchez effect does not hold for groundwater used for drinking and domestic purposes in the Effutu Municipality. It has been expressed that improving groundwater quality will significantly increase the economic value of the resource. It has therefore been recommended that efforts should be made to treat groundwater to assume the quality of the Ghana Water Company's pipe-borne water after drilling projects in the Municipality.

Land use and land cover changes implications on biodiversity in the Owabi catchment of Atwima Nwabiagya North District, Ghana

This paper examined land use and land cover (LULC) change and implications to biodiversity in the Owabi catchment of Atwima Nwabiagya North District in Ghana from 1991 to 2021 using remote sensing, and geographic information systems (GIS), with participatory methods such as interviews and questionnaires with a sample size of 200 participants. The use of supervised classification with maximum likelihood algorithm in QGIS was employed to generate LULC maps of 1991, 2001, 2011, and 2021. Molusce Plugin in QGIS was applied to predict probabilities of LULC changes in 10 years (2021–2031). The results showed that high-density forest has disappeared from 1991 to 2021 while built-up has increased and remained the most dominant LULC from 2011 to 2021. There is a continual decline in the number of plant and animal species in and around the Owabi catchment. This can be attributed to the decline of high-density forests and increased built-up in the study area through human actions. The study identified the influence of human activities as the key forces of LULC change to biodiversity loss. This problem stemmed from the taste for housing and trading activities in the Kumasi Metropolitan Area which has resulted in an increasing demand for settlement because of its closeness to Kumasi and its environs. The study recommends that stringent preventive measures should be developed and enforced by various stakeholders including the Forestry Commission, Ghana Water Company Limited, Environmental Protection Agency, as well as the District/Municipal Assemblies to safeguard the forest from human activities. This recommendation will help these agencies to keep abreast with changes in LULC in the various communities and factors such as changes during the planning of the communities.

Effects of water quality on rural livelihoods: a case of Tamale Metropolis

Water quality issues are a challenge in both developed and developing countries, which affects the people who depend on it. This study aimed at examining the quality of water sources used by the residence of 18 rural areas in Tamale Metropolis and their effects on their livelihoods. This was done by collecting water samples from four different sources used by residents: hand-dug wells, boreholes, Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) household tap and dam for laboratory analysis for both dry and rainy seasons. Furthermore, selected respondents from 18 communities in rural Tamale in the Northern region of Ghana who depend on these water sources were interviewed to examine the effect of the water sources on their livelihoods. From the findings, almost all households have access to at least 2 of these water sources with 51 percent of households storing water due to the lack of year-round water. The water quality test also shows that apart from water provided by the GWCL which passed the standard for physico-chemical parameters; dam, well, and borehole test results for colour (10.9-105.0 Hz), turbidity (23.5-226.0 NTU) and iron (0.35-1.99 mg/l) fell beyond the recommended range set by World Health Organization. No water source could meet the bacteriological requirements with a total (7-1910 CFu) and faecal (7-1200 CFu) coliforms content increasing in the rainy season. Seventy-three (73) percent of households reported sharing water with animals and 41 percent perceived to drink from unclean sources. Additionally, 70 percent indicated an increase in diseases such as cholera and diarrhoea while 90 percent responded that the cost of getting quality or potable water and attending for healthcare affects their household income. The overall implication is that the effect of poor water quality on the livelihoods of rural residence in Tamale Metropolis is significant and requires urgent intervention.

Impact of the ban on illegal mining activities on raw water quality: A case-study of Konongo Water Treatment Plant, Ashanti Region of Ghana

The Government of Ghana prohibited Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) operations from 2017 to 2018 as part of its strategy to address the socio-environmental issues caused by illegal mining activities, also referred to as “galamsey” operations. This study assessed the trend in the water quality of raw water abstracted at the Konongo Water Treatment Plant (WTP) for treatment before and after implementing the ban on “galamsey” operations. The main source of raw water for the Konongo WTP is the Anuru River. Secondary data on physicochemical water quality from 2006 to 2019 was sourced from the Konongo WTP and the Ashanti Regional Water Quality Assurance Unit of Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL). Mann-Kendall seasonality test was used to determine trends in the water quality data using XLSTAT statistical tool. The results showed a statistically significant (5% level of significance) upward trend in colour, turbidity, temperature, total iron, and sulphate before the ban on “galamsey” activities. There was statistically significant evidence of a downward trend in total hardness, calcium hardness, turbidity, total alkalinity, and chloride after the ban on “galamsey” operations.

Assessing the impacts of artisanal mining on the quality ofvf South-western Rivers System in Ghana.

Artisanal small-scale mining has been part of Ghana's history, but recent public outcry on the devastating impacts of the phenomenon on water bodies, due to expansion in the sector, has led to clamp downs by various governments on the activity. This has called for evaluation of the water quality of the South-western Rivers System, which are small-scale mining endemic areas. Thirty-five river samples were collected in July 2018 and were analyzed for physico-chemical parameters using procedures outlined in the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewaters. The results revealed that the rivers are polluted with Fe and Cu, accompanied by very high levels of turbidity (mean = 488 NTU) and total suspended solids (TSS) (mean = 382mg/L). NH3-N, PO4-P, BOD, and DO levels indicated mild pollution in the waters. Pollution of the rivers is attributable to impacts of artisanal small-scale mining, surface run-off as a result of high intensity rainfall, anthropogenic (indiscriminate waste disposal) and geogenic factors such as dissolution of minerals from the soil zone. It was observed that, if not strictly regulated, turbidity and TSS levels arising mainly from illegal small-scale mining activities could lead to shutdowns of a number of Ghana Water Company Limited treatment plants, leading to water supply challenges in the study area.

Domestic End-users’ Participation in Managing Urban Water Supply in Emerging Cities: Evidence from Wa, Ghana

Domestic end-users’ participation in urban water management is essential to achieving improved water delivery system that meet the needs of all urban dwellers in Ghana. This paper examined how domestic end-users can effectively participate in managing urban water in Wa. The study used semi-structured questionnaires and key informant interviews with a sample of 379 households and two staff from Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) and Public Utilities Regulatory Commission (PURC). Kendall’s coefficient of concordance analysis and content analysis were the analytical techniques employed. It found that households’ level of participationin urban water management was 14%. Results of the Kendall’s analysis showed a coefficient of 0.59, which indicates that there is a high agreement level among households that the low level of participation is attributed to GWCL’s lack of trust in end-users’ capacity to make meaningful inputs. It identifies formation of urban zonal water management committees, communication and information sharing, operational transparency and assigning specific roles to end-users as some of the strategies for improving participation in urban water management. These findings have implications for the realisation of the Ghana National Water Policy objective of participatory decision-making in urban water management. It is important that GWCL streamlines its operations and sensitise end-users on its operations&#x0D; Keywords: End-users, Participation, Urban Water, Management, Challenges

Empirical analysis of the impact of urbanization on groundwater quality within the slums of Accra, Ghana

AbstractA significant proportion of city dwellers in Ghana reside in slums where groundwater is the major source of water for domestic uses. This study examined the quality of groundwater from boreholes (seven) and hand‐dug wells (13) in five major slums in the city of Accra, Ghana. Water samples were tested for a total of 27 microbial and physicochemical contaminants at the central laboratory of the Ghana Water Company Limited. Overall, the water quality in the slums was poor as most of the parameters tested did not meet the 2017 WHO standards. Four out of the five slums (in Nima, Chorkor, Jamestown, and Abokobi‐Pantang), for instance, recorded high amounts of lead, with average values of 0.25 mg/L, 1.00 mg/L, 0.25 mg/L, and 1.5 mg/L, respectively, which are above the WHO standard of 0.01 mg/L. pH values in Nima (5.09), Sabon Zongo, Chorkor (6.09), and Abokobi‐Pantang (6.17) did not meet the WHO standard of 6.5–8.5. All five slums indicated various degrees of bacteriological contamination. The average Escherichia coli values per slum ranged between 12.50 CFU/100 ml and 249.00 CFU/100 ml, while the mean total coliform per slum ranged from 90.75 CFU/100 ml to 490.25 CFU/100 ml. The poor quality of groundwater found is attributable to improper disposal of waste, siting of boreholes/wells close to toilets, and the coastal location of some of the slums. Strict enforcement of water‐quality control checks, intensive sensitization on the dangers of improper waste disposal to groundwater quality, and the provision of sanitation facilities in the slums by city authorities are highly recommended.

Groundwater Quality Characterisation of Selected Hand-dug Wells and Geological Implications in the Assin North Municipality, Ghana

Water from ten hand-dug wells from Assin North Municipality in Ghana were analysed at Ghana Water Company Limited Quality Assurance Laboratory, Ho in Ghana for various physico-chemical parameters. The analyses used standard methods with chemicals of AR grade; pH was measured with the Horiba Compact B-122 and Inolab 7300 Conductivity/TDS portable meter. Colour, turbidity, aluminium, copper, sulphate and total iron were analysed by spectrophotometry using Hach DR/2500 following standard methods. Flame photometer was used for determination of metal ions Na+, K+ and Ca2+. Silver nitrate method was used to estimate chloride, sulphate was determined by turbidimetric method. Total hardness was calculated by complexometric titration using EDTA. The results of the analyses show pH 6.0 to 7.2 with a mean of 6.5, conductivity from 300 to 800 μS/cm, TDS range from 90 to 400 mg/l. Piper Trilinear diagram revealed three main water types - calcium bicarbonate (Ca+Mg-HCO3) possibly sourced from Ca-plagioclase, biotite and amphibole; sodium chloride (Na-Cl) from Na-plagioclase, muscovite and chlorite; and mixed water types which may be due to the combined effect of Birimian metasedimentary rocks, Belt granitoid and pegmatites that released into the water through cation exchange and accounted for Na+ in the Na-Cl water type. Chloride in a few hand-dug wells may be linked to mineralogy crystallised from marine deposited sediments and infiltration of rainwater along fractures in the rocks. Hence most of the water samples have Na/Cl ratios&lt;0.86. The rainwater in the area with weak acidity possibly infiltrated into the soil to cause appreciable concentration of HCO3- in the studied water. The total coliform values in water were less harmful as there was no faecal coliforms, though total microbial values in hand-dug wells X4 and X10 with total coliform values of 2.2 and 5.1 MPN/100ml respectively exceed the WHO guidelines. Hand-dug wells X4 and X6 in the study probably ended in aquifers in the weathered zone with the rest of the wells in fresh fractured horizons of the granitoids. Na/Cl ratios&gt;1 (for water samples X1, X7 and X8) might have been due to contamination from anthropogenic sources. Pearson correlation indicates strong and positive correlation of TDS&lt;Mg&lt; Na with conductivity. All the water samples were safe for human consumption.

Composition of Clay Filters for Water Treatment in Akutuase: A Rural Community in Western Region, Ghana

The purpose of this study was to compose clay filters made from local materials for the efficiency of water impurities removal for rural households. Clay filters were manufactured by using local materials: Akutuase clay, sawdust gathered from a sawmill unit, and rice husks from rice farmers at Akutuase. These materials were ground and sieved to obtain finer particle sizes, weighed, and proportionally wet mixed. Pots were then made, dried, and fired in a kiln at temperatures of 850, 900, and 950ºC, respectively. A silver coating was artificially applied to the fired filters using 0.1 mg/L of silver solution. Raw water fetched from a stream in Akutuase was filtered using the pots. The filtered water was tested for microbial removal efficiency of the composed clay filters at Ghana Water Company, Takoradi. It was revealed that compositions $C_380$ and $C_480$ made up of 80% clay, 15% rice husks and 5% sawdust that were fired at 900 and 950ºC respectively, became successful and suitable for water filtration. However, it was highly successful when the temperature was 950ºC due to comparatively the greater quantity of water that $C_480$ was able to filter. The results suggested that the silver-impregnated ceramic filter constructed was highly efficient and effective in the removal of bacteria. It had been recommended among others that, as a measure to prevent water-borne diseases in Akuatuase, institutions should invest in setting up small scale ceramic industry in the community for mass-production of clay filters to serve the rural folks. Further studies should be extended to analyze the removal of other pathogens including viruses and protozoa for different water-quality conditions. Additionally, the long-term field performance of locally produced filters and their effects on human health must be investigated.

Citizen participation dilemmas in water governance: An empirical case of Kumasi, Ghana

Citizen participation in decision-making on water-related initiatives offers a valuable pathway to move towards a more equitable and sustainable water delivery, now and into the future. However, given the acknowledged impacts of active citizen participation in the water governance process, there is an increase institutional search for ideal approaches to enhance local inputs in water decisions. To enhance institutional knowledge on this quest, this paper adopts a qualitative exploratory method using 48 interviews and 2 focus group discussions (6 participants in each group) to present an empirical case of Kumasi in Ghana. Findings from the study show that citizens are willing to participate in decision-making on water-related process through radio programs; public meetings; surveys or polls and telephone. It was also realised that Ghana Water Company focuses more on the technical aspect of water delivery than the social aspect which borders on appropriate engagement strategies that involve customers in the decision-making process. The results imply a significant difference regarding feasibility and outcomes for each currently deployed participatory mechanism. The study recommends a change in current institutional and governance arrangements to influence citizen participation strategies at all levels of water service delivery and governance.

The Influence of Green Procurement Practice on Organisational Performance. Ghana Water Company Ltd. and Bayport Savings and Loans Plc as Point of Convergence

This study was a comparative analysis of Ghana Water Co. Ltd. and Bayport Savings and Loans Plc with respect to Green Procurement practice and organizational performance by assessing the moderating role of supplier collaboration. This study employed a quantitative research approach; a structured questionnaire was used to solicit primary data from 160 staffs of both Ghana Water Co. Ltd and Bayport Savings and Loans Plc. SPSS was used to analyze the data. From the perspective of both Ghana Water Co. Ltd. and Bayport Savings and Loans, the study found that green procurement was a significant determinant of organizational performance. Moreover, from the perspective of both Ghana Water Co. Ltd. and Bayport Savings and Loans, the study again revealed that supplier collaboration has a significant effect on organizational performance. From the perspective of Ghana Water Co. Ltd., the study again revealed that supplier collaborations significantly moderate the relationship between green procurement and organizational performance. On the other hand, from the perspective of Bayport, the study found that those supplier collaborations significantly moderate the relationship between green procurement and organizational performance. The study found both Ghana Water Co. Ltd. and Bayport Savings and Loans Plc indicated that challenges in practicing green procurement spanned from lack of top management support, lack of cooperation from the staff, weak knowledge on green procurement to the cost of fully implementing green procurement. In conclusion, the study found no clear distinctiveness between green procurement practices in both Ghana Water Co. Ltd. and Bayport Savings and Loans Plc in terms of performance, supplier collaboration and challenges. The study recommends the need for green procurement implementation among corporate entities in order to increase performance.

The Assessment of Heavy Metals Concentration in Groundwater: A Case Study of the Wa Municipality

Water is a basic need for both domestic and industrial purposes. Regardless of the source of water it should not be contaminated. The purpose of this study is to establish the presence of heavy metals contaminants in groundwater in the Wa Municipality, Ghana. The study is an experiment of six (6) sample units which include: three (3) boreholes, two (2) wells and a sample from the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) reservoir. The findings showed that Nitrite in JH1 (3.65 mg/l) and Iron in BM1 (1.365 mg/l) were beyond the benchmarks while other parameters in the rest of the sample units were within the World Health Organization (WHO) standards. Notwithstanding, the test was not significant (p = 0.359) at alpha 0.05 two tail test. The study concludes that the groundwater in the Wa Municipality is not much contaminated and is safe for drinking with minimum treatment.

Anatomy of the Privatization of State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) in Ghana: Implication for Policy and Accountability

With the administrative and operational functions of State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) becoming increasingly complex and sophisticated among developing countries by the 1980s, privatization was recommended by the IMF/World Bank as a remedy to these institutional deficiencies . This is contingent on the neoclassical debate that private ownership rather than public ownership of management and operations of SOEs results in prudent policy process and accountability. Therefore, this study sought to assess the validity of this assertion by employing the Principal-Agent theory in assessing the level of accountability between the citizens (principal) and the government (agent) during private ownership of service delivery. As a qualitative study, this paper adopts unobtrusive content analysis of an empirical study of the privatization of Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL). The government (agent) under the Principal-Agent theory is to ensure that the private operator, Aqua Vitens Rand Limited (AVRL) respects the terms of divestiture, while upholding the principles of accountability. However, the findings of the study suggest that the failure of government (agent) to uphold core accountability mechanisms such as transparency, accessibility to information, sense of ownership, responsiveness, and conformity to established monitoring and evaluation measures, contributed to the inability to achieve key performance targets, leading to the unsuccessful policy outcome of the privatization contract. This paper, therefore, argues that the failure to adopt accountability mechanisms in the divestiture of SOEs will inevitably compromise administrative policy outcomes.