Ghana Police Research Articles

Transforming policing in Ghana through technology: a focus on police operations in the Greater Accra region

Integrating technology into policing has the potential to greatly improve the effectiveness, transparency, and community participation of law enforcement agencies. This study examines the profound influence of technology on the Ghana Police Service, with a specific emphasis on the Greater Accra Region. The main aim of this research is to examine how technological advancements might enhance police results and tackle existing difficulties in the context of law enforcement in Ghana. The study adopts a qualitative research approach and collects data from police officers and community members through the use of semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. The investigation involved the participation of a combined total of twenty-six police officials from the Tema and Accra Regional Headquarters, as well as twenty-two community members. The data gathering procedure sought to gather a wide range of viewpoints on the present condition of technology in law enforcement, its advantages, difficulties, and prospects for future advancement. The results demonstrate that the utilisation of technology, such as mobile data terminals and social media platforms, can greatly improve the effectiveness of police operations, promote community involvement, and increase transparency. Nevertheless, the presence of obstacles such as insufficient infrastructure, cultural opposition, and the necessity for extensive training were also acknowledged. The research enhances the current knowledge by presenting empirical evidence on the benefits and constraints of technology in law enforcement, particularly in the setting of Ghana. This study emphasises the significance of making strategic investments in technology infrastructure and training, as well as the necessity of establishing legal frameworks to tackle ethical and privacy concerns. Additionally, it proposes that future studies should prioritise examining the enduring viability of technological advancements in law enforcement and investigating their effects in various geographical areas. The study suggests that politicians and law enforcement organisations should promote the deployment of technology in a way that is successful and build public trust in the Ghana Police Service.

National Identification and Public Cooperation with the Police in Ghana

PurposeThis study examines the role of national identification in public cooperation with the police in Ghana. The first objective is to examine the antecedents of national identification and police legitimacy in Ghana, and the second objective is to examine the association between national identification and public cooperation in Ghana. MethodsUsing data from an online survey of university students (N = 482), the current study employs structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine the antecedents of national identification and police legitimacy, and the association between national identification and public cooperation. Bootstrapped standard errors with bias-corrected confidence intervals is used examine the mediating effects of national identification and police legitimacy. ResultsThe SEM indicates that participants who viewed the police as effective and distributively just were willing to cooperate with the police. Police procedural justice was the sole predictor of police legitimacy. Contrary to theoretical expectations regarding the status- and value-signaling function of procedural justice, participants felt valued and worthy as members of Ghanaian society when the police were effective at fighting crime and fair in allocating outcomes. ConclusionThis study demonstrates that perceived group identification plays a role in public cooperation with police in Ghana.

Emergency policing and public trust in the police in Ghana: evidence from the COVID-19 pandemic

PurposeThe COVID-19 pandemic provides researchers and practitioners with an opportunity to examine the effect of emergency policing on public trust in the police and augment our understanding. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to examine the effect of police enforcement of COVID-19 health measures on public trust in the police in Ghana.Design/methodology/approachA multivariate binary logistic regression was utilized to assess the effect of police enforcement of COVID-19 health measures on public trust in the police in Ghana using national representative data.FindingsOur analysis suggests that emergency policing positively influences public trust in the police in Ghana. Additionally, we observed that police-related issues such as corruption and professionalism, as well as demographic factors of the public, influence trust in the police. These observations are helpful for emergency policing and policy development in Ghana.Originality/valueThis study is unique because it uses national representative data to assess the effect of police enforcement of COVID-19 health measures on public trust in the police in Ghana. Furthermore, this study is among the first or among the few from Ghana and the sub-region to examine the nexus between health emergencies and policing.

Employee retention and organizational performance: Evidence from Ghana Police Service

Purpose: This study examined workplace factors that influence employees’ stay, the importance of employee retention practices, and the influence of employee retention on organizational performance. Research Methodology: It study used a quantitative approach and a case study strategy. The study population included selected staff from three (3) departments at the Accra Regional Headquarters of the Ghana Police Service. Participants were randomly selected to complete the self-administered questionnaires. Results were analyzed using descriptive statistics and are presented in tables. Results: The work environment, competitive compensation and benefits, organizational culture, and personal development opportunities are factors that affect employee retention. It was also found that employee retention enhances the stability and continuous progress of employees, improves employee morale, attracts and retains top talent, and increases job satisfaction. Finally, employee retention positively influences organizational performance by increasing efficiency and productivity, knowledge retention, and financial performance. Limitations: This study was limited to employees at the Regional Headquarters of the Ghana Police Service, a government institution. Contribution: Organizations need to create a respectful, inclusive, and supportive workplace that improves retention. Attractive remuneration frameworks that retain skilled officers and personnel should also be adopted. It is also important to explore employee career advancement pathways. Novelty: This study focuses on the influence of employee retention on organizational performance in a service-oriented government institution.

Contemporary Challenges Associated With Border Security Operations to Promote Socio-Economic Development at Aflao Border in Ghana

Purpose: The study investigated challenges associated with border security operations to promote socio-economic development using an integrated border management model at Aflao Border in Ghana. Using a mixed method approach, which is in line with the transformative philosophical underpinning.
 Methodology: Both interviews and questionnaires were employed as data collection tools. The population was sampled from four security service institutions manning the operations at Afloa border. Given the premise that border security forces were selected from the four coordinated security forces. The study respectively drew 112 security personnel drawn at random from the Afloa border. Using the sampling ratio proposed by Cochran (1963: 75) to arrive at variability p = 0.5 (maximum variability) and with the desire of 95% confidence level and ±5% precision. The sampled population was composed of 106 border security personnel, and 6 senior border security personnel serving in the hierarchy of the General, Patrol, Intelligence, and Anti-Human Smuggling and Trafficking Units at the borders were interviewed to furnish the qualitative data for this study. The study adopted a descriptive research design using personnel from the Ghana Immigration Service, Customs Division of Ghana Revenue Authority, Ghana Police Service, and Ghana Armed Forces in charge of security at the Aflao border.
 Findings: The study concludes that specific challenges which confront the border security apparatus are, in order of priority, inadequate logistics and equipment, inadequate coordination among border officials, and inadequacy of border security personnel.
 Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Improve border control, the government should make needed resources available by providing modern equipment/gadgets and logistics for patrol teams and the operations of the security system.

The Role of Private Security Organizations in crime prevention and homeland security management in Ghana

The study was to explore the play by Private Security Organizations in crime prevention and homeland security management in Ghana. The study used a descriptive design of the qualitative of which respondents from the various management of Private Security Organizations in Accra were targeted. Purposive sampling technique was employed to select 7 participants to form part of the study. Interview guide was used at the data collection instrument. Data from interviews were analysed thematically based on the research objectives. The study found that key security services provided by the PSOs included the four functions mandated by the laws of Ghana. Also, their operations basically covers; watching and guarding services, patrolling services, and escort services. PSOs follow some form laid down procedures and principles in recruiting and selecting employees. PSOs have some collaboration with the Ghana Police Service with regards to its mandate enshrined by the constitution of Ghana to prevent crime and protect lives and properties. However, the key challenges of the PSOs are financial constraints, inadequate logistics and resources, high cost of operations, poor perception of the general public on their roles in fighting against crime as well as protecting lives and properties. Therefore, the study recommended that various PSOs should come together to form some associations that can fight for their right and welfare of their members. Also, the government of Ghana through the Ministry of Interior and the Ghana Police Service should sponsor some of their activities such as training and workshops. Moreover, the government can support them in terms of vehicles or patrol cars and fueling allowances

Effects Of Financial Management Practices On The Operational Performance Of The Ghana Police Force

The study was to establish the effect of the financial management practices on the operational performance of the Ghana Police force in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. The study used a descriptive survey design of the quantitative approach. It targeted staff of Ghana Police Service in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. The study employed census and questionnaire was employed to gather data from them. The questionnaire was analysed descriptively using frequencies and percentages with the aid of Statistical Package for Service Solution version 26. The study found that effective financial management practices have assisted in reducing, crime apprehension and prosecution, crime rate, crime detection and prevention, protection of life and property, as well as peace and tranquility. Factors that hinder the effective financial management practices in the Ghana Police force included; political changes/interference, timeliness of resources and finance, problems of accountability and transparency, and problems of bureaucracy and inefficiency. Therefore, the study recommended that the Ghana Police Service should ensure that liquidity policy is reviewed periodically. Also, the Ghana Police Service should strengthen the system of supervision for cash collection and disbursement. Moreover, the Ghana Police Service should ensure that there is analysis of performance and plans are compared to actual plans with budget. Furthermore, the Ministry of finance in collaboration with the Ghana Police Service should release resources and finance on time. Lastly, the Ghana Police Service should ensure that there is accountability and transparency as well as reducing the bureaucracy and inefficiency

Understanding and Practices of Human Rights Standards Relating to Policing: A Case Study of Ghana Police Officers

Abstract Human Rights Education (HRE) has been recognized by scholars as crucial and critical for the construction of a universal culture of human rights. This recognition stems from the fact that HRE enables the building of capacity and responsiveness of professionals in terms of shaping their skills through the acquisition of the requisite knowledge, attitude, skills and practices of international human rights standards that relate to their work. Drawing on in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, this article explores police officers’ knowledge and practice of international human rights standards that relate to policing from a conveniently selected 48 groups of police officers from eight randomly selected regions out of the 16 regions of Ghana. The findings revealed that, although HRE constitutes part of the Ghana Police Service training curriculum, a large number of the officer-participants indicate inadequate understanding and practice of these relevant Human Rights Standards. Prudent HRE-oriented policies concerning Ghana police training are recommended.

Beyond the Laws: Analysing Police Intervention Strategies for Handling Domestic Violence in Ghana and Nigeria

Substantial research has demonstrated that the police are critical agents in dealing with the problem of DV and reducing its overall prevalence. The passage of the DV laws in Ghana and Nigeria made the police the primary agency to respond to DV: however, there is limited research on how police handle domestic violence in the two countries. This study, therefore, critically interrogated police intervention strategies in handling DV and their effectiveness in Ghana and Nigeria. In-depth interviews were conducted with 100 female victims of DV who have utilized police services and 30 police officers who handle DV cases. In addition, ethnographic observations were made in the police stations. The study found that arrest and detention, prosecution at the law court and the use of caution letters are the major conventional strategies used by the Ghana and Nigeria police to handle domestic violence. The two police institutions also adopted culturally sensitive approaches such as mediation, invitation letters and the use of minor punishment to deter offenders and potential offenders. There were a few variations in how the two police institutions handled domestic violence. The Ghana police utilized invisible arrest to preserve family relationships while the Nigeria police adopted naming and shaming of perpetrators to deter the public. The effectiveness of the interventions was mixed, depending on cultural acceptability, victims’ needs and impact on perpetrators. Police interventions emphasized punishments, and this often brought swift changes in offenders’ behavior but the changes were not sustainable.

Violence against women and socio-economic well-being in Jirapa, north-western Ghana

The incidence of gender-based violence against women has been on the rise globally. While a multitude of factors accounts for the problem generally, there are location-specific nuances. This paper investigated gender-based violence against women in the Jirapa area of north-western Ghana using a mixed method approach covering one hundred and forty sampled victims. Data were collected using in-depth interviews, semi-structured questionnaires, and key informant interviews. Among others, violence against women in the Jirapa area is increasing despite several policy interventions made. Alcohol abuse on the part of males, cultural practices including patriarchal inheritance, abduction of girls for marriage, wife battering, low educational attainment and poor access, ownership, and control over resources among women are the causes of gender-based violence in the area. The study revealed that gender-based violence has negatively impacted the socio-economic well-being of women in the Jirapa area and threw their futures into jeopardy. The findings also show that the violence meted out to women in the study area negatively affected their socioeconomic well-being. The study concludes that the incidences of violence against women in the area are deeply rooted in the culture of the people and are regarded as a norm. It is recommended that stakeholders (chiefs, NGOs, and the Local Government Authority) create better access to resources and stem the tide of gender-based violence in the area. Enforcement of the law must also be done by the Ghana Police Service devoid of fear of reprisals or fervour.

A Model “Critical Decision-Making Model”, Case-Study of Ghana, West Africa

Introduction: Security and Police organizations in West Africa do not have Critical Decision-making Models to guide the Officer in deciding the Use of Force option. The various Security and Police Services do not appear to place emphasis on ethical policing leading to officer extrajudicial killing and rent- seeking behaviors. Method: Using Ghana’s legal framework on the use of force as a case study, author conducted desk-top review of Critical Decision-making Models of other jurisdictions and did content analysis of Ghana’s Incident and Public Order Management Manual, and Use of Force Order, GPS 004-15 as well as the legislative and Constitutional exceptions and immunities for the use of force. Author conducted twenty interviews opportunistically with police officers for validation. Finding: Police Organizations like the Ghana Police Service, have “Incident and Public Order Management Manual”, designed “to provide direction and information to assist commanders, planners, advisors to prepare for and manage events where there is risk to public safety…” It is a generic Standard Operating Procedure, SOP for incident management. They also have an SOP on the Use of Force, listing the events during which force can be used. These documents do not detail issues of proportionality. There is no emphasis on Critical Decision-making in the training of officers in the Use of Force evaluation. Modalities for risk assessment, and de-escalation of threat levels are not part of the SOP or Incident and Public Order Management. The Police in West Africa have negative public image, accused of being trigger happy, brutal in conducting arrests, and corrupt, which could be the result of the lack of adequate training on ethical policing, familiarity with Critical Decision-making skills, the position of the law on the use of force and accountability. Recommendations: The author has proposed a Critical Decision-making Model, admonished police organizations in West Africa, to create country specific models that are simple, functional, and least restrictive in conducting and controlling the offender during arrests. Conclusion: The author anticipates the proposed model or its derivatives would influence police training on Critical Decision-making, as an essential tool for law enforcement.

Optimized Recovery of DNA and Subsequent Short Tandem Repeat Profiling of Different Tissues Sampled from Embalmed Human Cadavers

Abstract Introduction: Storage of specimens sampled from human remains for pathological testing, embalming for burial purposes, and for human identification often requires formalin fixation and/or paraffin embedding. Current knowledge in molecular biology techniques and forensic DNA analysis makes it possible to optimize the extraction of amplifiable DNA from formalin-fixed tissues by improving the pre-treatment, optimizing the digestion condition of proteinase K, simplifying the extraction protocol and purifying the extracted DNA with optimized volumes of alcohol. Aim: This research sought to extract amplifiable DNA from thirteen brain, bone marrow and cartilage samples from four formalin embalmed human cadavers. Materials and Methods: Brain, cartilage and bone marrow samples were taken from four different cadavers at autopsy at the Ghana Police Hospital mortuary in Accra, Ghana sixty-two days after embalming. An optimized preparation and DNA extraction protocol was carried out on all the samples. Brain samples were also taken from a non-formalin treated fifth cadaver of known STR profile, and standard DNA extraction performed to serve as positive control. Results: Our optimized protocol yielded detectable quantities of DNA from the samples when quantified with the 7500 Real-Time PCR equipment. The extracted DNA also yielded full STR profiles with varying peak heights for forensic identification purposes. The measured degradation indexes of the DNA samples were greater than 1.0, with peak heights of generated STR profiles above the limits of detection of the 3500 genetic analyzer. Conclusion: Our current study demonstrated an optimized method of DNA extraction from tissues (brain, cartilage and bone marrow) sampled from formalin embalmed human cadavers. The optimized protocol reduced the concentration of formalin fixation residues in extracted DNA from formalin-fixed tissues, thereby improving the amplification efficiency for STR profiling. Brain, bone marrow and cartilages can be a good source of DNA from embalmed and degraded human remains, though for skeletonized human remains together with teeth and long bones.

Involvement of Technological Growth on Policing Performance in Ghana

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the involvements of technological growths on performance of police officers and suggest the best ways to enhance technology use in the Ghana Police Service.
 Methodology: The study adopted a descriptive research design survey. The sampling techniques used were simple random sampling. Raw data from respondents was obtained using questionnaires, interviews and focused group discussions. The qualitative data was analyzed thematically and by looking for patterns. They were presented in the form of narrative and verbatim quotations. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics includes percentages and means. They were presented in tables, graphs and pie charts.
 Findings: The results of the study established that the performance of police officers has greatly improved due to growth of technology. The study established that there was use of technology in Ghana police service though not very much advanced.
 Conclusion: The study concluded that Globalization and new technologies have facilitated certain cyber-criminal operations, thereby placing an additional burden on law enforcement agencies.
 Recommendation: The study recommends the government of Ghana should increase the allocation of funds to the National Police Service for the acquisition of updated equipment, to provide training at appropriate levels in forensic techniques and in technological skills for policy makers and law enforcement and investigative personnel, introduce appropriate procedural and substantive laws to deal with crimes committed in an electronic environment and raise public awareness, on the appropriate use of the internet.

Media reportage of suicide among police officers in Ghana: A mixed method analysis

Rates of suicide have been recorded among the police in some parts of the world. Despite the attention that this topic has received, it appears that not much is being researched on it in Africa. Besides, research on suicide in Ghana has been skewed towards the public, to the neglect of the police. The sparse literature on suicide among the police both in Africa and in Ghana inspired this study. Our objectives were to examine the state of suicide among the police in Ghana as reported in the media, the differences between private and public news outlets with respect to their reportage of police suicide, and reasons that account for suicide among the police in Ghana. Using a mixed method approach and with purposive sampling technique, contents of news items from seven popular news portals on suicide among police officers in Ghana between the years 2015 and 2021 were reviewed. Sixty-nine (69) news items were analysed using both quantitative and qualitative content analysis. It was observed that there were more reports of suicide on male officers compared with their female counterparts, with the rifle, pistol, and hanging being the modes for carrying out the act of suicide. Almost an equal number of superior and subordinate officers were reported to have committed suicide. To ensure that they completed their act, officers resorted to the use of lethal means, such as shooting themselves through the eye, head, throat, chin, and jaw. The reasons for committing suicide clustered around the themes of psychosocial precipitants, too high expectations, expected to man up, failed marriage, education of children, institutional lapses, failed paternity test, proposal, lack of public support, fed up with this life, can’t take the disgrace, and access to deadly weapon. Generally, media outlets failed to comply with the acceptable guidelines for reporting suicide. The use of a mixed method afforded us the opportunity to glean some reasons that account for suicide among the police in Ghana, showing how the psychological state of the officer, the society, and faulty institutional structures within the service could lead to officer suicide. Also, there is a need for media outlets to be educated on the need to adhere to the standard guidelines for reporting suicide.

Exploration of motorcyclists’ red-light running and helmet use at signalized intersections in Ghana

Objective There is a dearth of empirical studies on motorcyclists’ red-light running and helmet use at signalized intersections in low and middle-income countries like Ghana, Nigeria and Malaysia. This study seeks to fill the gap by looking at red-light running and helmet use at signalized intersections in the Cape Coast metropolis, Ghana. The study also identified potential areas of intervention to reduce the dangers posed by motorcyclists’ red-light running in the Cape Coast Metropolis without the use of a helmet. Method A naturalistic exploratory un-obstructive observational approach was used in assessing this phenomenon. The relationship between motorcyclists’ behaviors and motorcyclists’ observed demographic characteristics, the locality of the intersection, time of the week and presence of pillion passengers were analyzed. Chi-Square test of independence was used to establish the statistically significant relationships between dependent and independent variables. Results In all, 2,225 motorcyclists and 744 pillion passengers were observed. The results revealed that 33.1% of the motorcyclists ran a red light with 45.4% not using a helmet. Red-light running at signalized intersections was significantly linked to the locality of the intersection, time of the week, and helmet use. The helmet use was low and significantly associated with the presence of a pillion passenger and whether the pillion passenger used a helmet or not. Conclusion Red-light running is influenced by locality of intersection, time of the week and helmet use. Efforts to reduce red-light running and improve helmet use should involve road safety education, awareness creation, and enforcement of traffic laws by the officials of the National Road Safety Authority and Motor Transport and Traffic Department of the Ghana Police Service. City managers in other low and middle-income countries can use the findings in the study to inform policy.

Towards preventing “decriminalization” of domestic violence at DOVVSU, Ghana

AbstractDomestic violence in Ghana is a criminal offense under the Domestic Violence Act, 2007 (Act 732). Domestic Violence and Victims Support Unit (DOVVSU) of the Ghana Police Service is the recommended first point of call for handling complaints. Act 732 prescribes prosecution of cases, but also provides avenue for reconciliation through ADR method under strict criteria or conditions which state, among others, that use of ADR is only for cases where violence is not aggravated or serious in nature or cases which do not attract imprisonment of more than 2 years. Since its establishment DOVVSU has seen increasing patronage of its ADR services but little information exists on case selection for the process to avoid “decriminalization” of domestic violence. This study focuses on the ADR choice decision making at DOVVSU, Kumasi to determine level of compliance with these conditions. Thematic analysis of questionnaires and in‐depth interviews of service users and providers in this qualitative study, established that DOVVSU did not follow the case selection criteria outlined in Act 732, which potentially has the effect of “decriminalization” of domestic violence in Ghana.

Variations in Police Performance in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations and Domestic Policing in Ghana

The Ghana Police Service is constantly criticised by the Ghanaian public for poor performance and an inability to deal effectively with rising crime rates. Media reports and scholarly research have corroborated these criticisms, citing instances of police brutality, corruption, negligence, ineffectiveness and complicity in crimes. However, with few exceptions, the same police are widely applauded in United Nations peacekeeping operations for their professionalism, outstanding performance, and contributions to restoring peace and the rule of law. This raises the question of why the police’s performance at home differs from its performance in peacekeeping contexts. This article analyses the factors that underpin the perceived variations in police performance at home and internationally. Based on in-depth interviews conducted with relevant stakeholders and the application of assemblage theory to the empirical evidence gathered, it argues that perceived variations in performance have nothing to do with the technical competencies and knowledge of police personnel. Rather, this discrepancy can be explained by factors including: the effects of the colonial legacy on the police; different mandates/tasks in mission and in Ghana; distinct socio-cultural and political dynamics that influence policing; different legal frameworks and principles that govern domestic and international policing; limited availability of human and logistical resources and funding for domestic policing; and different methods for dealing with indiscipline and corruption.

Introduction: Assembling Peacekeeping and Policing in Ghana

By exploring the case of Ghana, this special issue provides two perspectives on UN peacekeeping that until now have been underdeveloped in the literature. First, rather than taking a mission and its host country as the analytical point of departure, the contributions in the special issue focus on how peacekeeping has shaped domestic security in Ghana – a consistent contributor of security personnel to peacekeeping since 1960. Second, instead of focusing on the military component, attention is paid to the link between peacekeeping and law enforcement, and thus how policing – as carried out by the state-sanctioned Ghana Police Service, Ghana Armed Forces and a range of non-state actors – intertwines with and is partially shaped by practices, ideas and discourse that can be traced back to mission deployments. Theoretically, the concept of assemblage is used to frame how peacekeeping stretches across state boundaries and intersects with the politics and practices of domestic security provision. Both at a state institutional level, and in day-to-day policing by individual police officers, order-making practices and discourses are constituted by the assembling of a multitude of logics and historicities that integrate and assimilate as well as contradict and oppose one another. It is how the experience of peacekeeping becomes part of and shapes these ever-evolving assemblages that the contributions to this special issue investigate. Changes may be institutional and macro-political but are as often deeply personal and individualised, with implications for how security personnel perceive and practice their roles.

Assembling Community Policing: Peacekeeping and the Ghana Police Service’s Transformation Agenda

This article shows how peacekeeping experiences manifest in the Ghana Police Service’s (GPS) community policing strategies and practices in often inconspicuous and individualized ways. Peacekeeping constitutes an important element of what the article refers to as the community policing assemblage. However, the article emphasises that the shape of the community policing assemblage is conditioned by a wide range of discourses and practices beyond peacekeeping. Global and national policies and strategies relating to policing, including the GPS’s own transformation agenda, local and individual interpretations and translations of peacekeeping experiences and what community policing means, all play into how the assemblage is formed. Thus, the article disentangles the effects of peacekeeping and puts it in the context of broader policing in Ghana, based on in-depth interviews and observations with police officers, mainly from the GPS’s community policing headquarters in Tesano, Accra. It concludes that while several studies have shown how peacekeeping has shaped Ghana’s security institutions and sense of role in the world, it has not been able to chip away at or counteract the deep and deepening control that security institutions in the country are subjected to by politicians. Arguing that the peacekeeping experience may have a profound transformative effect on individual police officers, yet little if any impact in terms of depoliticising the GPS and policing more broadly, is a less sweeping conclusion. However, suggesting that the effects of peacekeeping often are local and individualized, at times deeply embodied experiences, is also a more accurate conclusion empirically.

An intercept survey of the use and non-use of footbridges in Ghana

Footbridges reduce pedestrian-vehicular interaction and the incidence of pedestrian crashes. Their use significantly reduce the incidence of pedestrian crashes along major highways in low and middle-income countries like Colombia, Ghana, Jordan, Malaysia, and Nigeria. This study seeks to investigate the usage of footbridges in Ghana. A survey was conducted among pedestrians using and not using footbridges at six and one locations in Greater Accra and Kumasi Metropolitan areas respectively. The pedestrians were intercepted in the vicinity of footbridges as users and non-users from 7:00am-9:00am, 11:00am-1:00 pm and 3:00 pm-5:00 pm daily for seven days. In all, 1852 pedestrians were surveyed. The quantitative data was analysed using SPSS v.21 and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). The study showed that more prevalence among male non-users than females. Those with secondary education, and those who had been previously involved in a pedestrian crash used footbridges the most. The SEM results revealed that age, gender, training in pedestrian safety, frequency of use, walking distance, how often one crosses the stretch road, and length of stay in an area, affect the use of footbridges. An approach by city managers in low and middle-income countries including Colombia, Ghana, Jordan, Malaysia, Mexico, and Nigeria is required to improve the use of footbridges to reduce the incidence of pedestrian crashes. Specifically, officials of the National Road Safety Authority, Ghana Highway Authority and Motor Transport and Traffic Department of the Ghana Police Service should consider these factors affecting footbridge usage in addressing pedestrian safety on Ghanaian highways.