Gezira Scheme Research Articles

Sudan's catastrophe: the role of changing dynamics of food and power in the Gezira agricultural scheme.

This article explores the role of historical, political, and economic processes in understanding war and famine in Sudan after 2023. The focus is on Al-Gezira, the site of Sudan's largest agricultural scheme. Using ethnography, interviews, and document reviews, the study analyses the Gezira irrigation project in three phases. First, the 1980s and 1990s, when patronage politics dominated its management. Second, the neoliberal strategies of the Gezira Scheme Act of 2005, which enabled Islamist profiteering while increasing vulnerability among farmers and labourers and tensions between them. Third, post 2018, when political movements used evidence of the scheme's deterioration to call for revolution, but once achieved, previous tensions grew and have been manipulated during the war. Sudan provides an example of how decades of war and neoliberal economic strategies have led to a deeply-rooted, violent, and extractive political economy. This has been to the benefit of business and elites, leaving many to a life of precarity, exploitation, and hunger.

Determining the Association Between MSP1/2 Variant and Multiplicity of Infection on Incidence of Severe Malaria in Sudanese Children in Gezira State, Sudan

The Almanagil province located in Gezira scheme, Gezira state, Sudan, represents a suitable environment for the breeding of malaria-carrying mosquitoes. An estimated 5.9% of Sudanese people suffer from malaria, with 87.6% of cases caused by Plasmodium falciparum and 12.4% by Plasmodium vivax. Clinical manifestation of malaria cases range from mild uncomplicated to severe and fatal complications and the genetic variants and multiplicity of falciparum infection can worsen the manifestations of malaria. The objective of this work is to determine the degree of genetic variation in P. falciparum infection in a high-transmission region of central Sudan by analyzing merozoite surface protein-1 (msp1) and merozoite surface protein-2 (msp2) variations. During the rainy season of 2022, Eighty-nine children with confirmed severe falciparum malaria whom admitted to Almanagil Pediatric Hospital were included in this study. Dry blood spots were used to extract the DNA and amplification of three msp1 and two of msp2 allelic subfamilies, namely K1, RO33 and MAD20 and FC27 and IC/3D7, respectively. The data was analyzed by using SPSS computer program (v 23.0). The three genetic subfamilies of msp1 (K1, RO33 and MAD20) and the two alleles of msp2 (FC27 and IC/3D7) were identified. Msp1 variants represent K1 (64/89, 71.9%), RO33 (56/89, 62.9%) and MAD20 (72/89, 80.9%), while msp2 diversity represents ICI/3D7 (52/89, 58.4%), FC27 (62/89, 69.6%) and ICI/3D7/FC27(33/89, 37.1%). The MAD20 and FC27 showed high genetic diversity among both genes respectively. RO33 allele shows a strong association with severity of falciparum malaria (OR 2.572, P 0.045 ), while the K1 was the lowest risk factor for malaria severity. The allele subfamily K1 and MAD20 of msp1 were associated with hypoglycemia (OR 4.21 and 2.91) respectively. Our study revealed high genetic polymorphisms of msp1 and msp2. Among Central Sudanese children with high MOI of P. falciparum isolates, there was a significant frequency of msp1, a strong association between the K1 allele and hypoglycemia, and a substantial association between the RO33 and MAD20 alleles with the severity of the infection. These findings could help develop malaria control strategies.

Multiscale spatial variability in land and water productivity across the Gezira irrigation scheme, Sudan

Agricultural performance assessment spans various spatial scales, from single plots to entire irrigation systems. A multi-scale analysis is thus crucial for informed decision-making. The Gezira irrigation sScheme in Sudan is a longstanding large-scale irrigation system experiencing severe water management challenges, manifested by low land productivity, water productivity, and irrigation efficiency. Recognizing the interdependence of decision-making, this research focuses on variations in water and land productivity at different spatial scales within the Gezira irrigation scheme. As one of the world’s largest gravity-irrigated systems, covering 2.1 million feddan (1 feddan = 0.42 ha ∼ 1 acre), the scheme serves as an interesting case to study head-tail performance variations across four spatial scales: tertiary, secondary, and major units, and the whole scheme. This study is centered on the winter season wheat cultivation 2022–2023, and employs the FAO’s Water Productivity Open Access Portal (WaPOR v2.1) datasets, with 100 m resolution, for computing land and water productivity. Ground-observed yield data from nine tertiary units (nimras) in the Wadelbur irrigation division were used to validate WaPOR. The results showed a systematic underestimation of WaPOR derived land productivity by about 40 % compared to the ground dataset. The head-tail analysis of land and water productivity reveal contrasting results at different scales. At tertiary and secondary scales, no correlation exists between distance from offtake and productivity. At the major unit (irrigation division), a moderate correlation is observed: 0.7 for land productivity, and 0.6 for water productivity. At the scheme scale, the correlation factors are somewhat lower for land productivity (0.4) and the same for water productivity (0.6). At the largest scale, the productivity appears to increase from head to tail divisions, suggesting potential overirrigation and waterlogging in the head parts leading to reduced productivity. Another possibility is the presence of better agricultural practices in the tail areas compared to the head.

The Sudan's Incorporation into the Capitalist World-Economy through Modern Cultivation and Trade of Cotton

Before the 19th century, the Sudan had a distinctive social system in which decentralized kingdoms held the political power. The article assumes that this intersocietal system entered a process of incorporation into the capitalist world-economy in the 19th century. Early modernization policies pursued in the Sudan during the Turco-Egyptian administration between 1821-1885 period, known as the Turkiyya. This rule shifted to the Anglo-Egyptian administration in 1899, after British forces defeating the short-lived Mahdist rule. Upon establishment of the new condominium government, the Sudan became a peripheral supplier of the expanding world economy. Throughout the peripheralization, the British gained control of raw materials such as gum arabic and cotton from the Nile valley, which were then transported to factories located in the mainland England. This article investigates economic incorporation process of the Sudan, specifically focusing on the Gezira Scheme, established with a colonial mentality, and mainly based on cotton production. The effect of this process was evident during the 1930s, when the country had been seriously impacted by the global economic crisis of 1929.

Farmer`s Adoption of Soybean Cultivation in Gezira Scheme, Sudan

Farmer`s Adoption of Soybean Cultivation in Gezira Scheme, Sudan

Micrometeorological Comparison of Canopy Temperature between Two Wheat Cultivars Grown under Irrigation in a Hot Environment in Sudan

A thorough exploration of the micrometeorological aspects influencing canopy temperature in contrasting wheat cultivars can unveil the specific mechanisms of adaptation to heat stress. However, information on wheat microclimates in hot environments for crop improvement is lacking. Here, we used a micrometeorological method to investigate wheat’s response to high temperatures. Field experiments were conducted in the Gezira Scheme, Sudan, to compare two high-yielding heat-tolerant cultivars, Imam and Bohaine, in terms of canopy temperature depression (CTD), air temperature gradient (ATG), and vapor pressure gradient (VPG) from a 2 m height to canopy level. The maximum air temperature at 2 m during the main growing season was 37 °C. Air temperature at canopy level was mostly lower in the Imam field than in the Bohaine field, and it was positively correlated with and higher than radiometric canopy surface temperature. The maximum CTD during the reproductive stage was 4.7–6.5 °C in the Bohaine field and 5.0–7.2 °C in the Imam field. ATG was also larger in the Imam field, attributed to the greater leaf area of the Imam canopy, as presumed from the NDVI difference between fields. ATG was negatively correlated with VPG in both fields, and the relationship was stronger at lower nighttime wind speeds and weaker at higher daytime wind speeds. These results indicate that the micrometeorological approach can be used to compare cultivars in high-temperature environments.

Production and Use of Ceramics in the First Millennium BC: Jebel Moya, Sudan

The site of Jebel Moya, situated in the center of the southern Gezira Plain in southcentral Sudan, has an occupational sequence spanning at least five millennia until around 2000 years ago. Renewed excavation is shedding new light on its occupational chronology and socioeconomic history, including activities such as burial, savanna herding, and domesticated sorghum cultivation practices dating to at least the mid-third millennium BC. In the present study, predominantly final phase pottery sherds from the first millennium BC to the start of the first millennium AD (Assemblage 3) have been analyzed via a combination of thin section petrography and instrumental geochemistry to determine their raw materials and place of manufacture and reconstruct their manufacturing technology. Organic residue analysis was also conducted to identify the products processed within vessels found at the site. The results suggest the existence of a well-developed local ceramic craft tradition that persisted for over one thousand years. Pots from Assemblage 3 were used to process, store, and consume animal and plant products, thus reinforcing emerging evidence for early agro-pastoral activities.

Technical Efficiency of Wheat Production in the Gezira Scheme

This study was carried out to measure the technical efficiencyof wheat production in the Gezira scheme and to determine the mostimportant socio-economic factors affecting this efficiency, using thestochastic production frontier model. Primary and secondary data wereused. The former were collected from a random sample of 100 farmersfrom Waddel Mansi sector of the Gezira scheme, while the latter werecollected from relevant sources. The results showed that the meantechnical efficiency was 0.73, which means that the scheme produced73% of the possible wheat production at the current levels of productioninputs and technology. In other words, wheat production could have beenincreased by 27%, at the same levels of inputs had farmers beentechnically efficient. The results also showed that 97% of wheat outputdeviations from normal were caused by differences in farmers' levels oftechnical efficiencies and were not due to the out of control randomnature of the agricultural production. Wheat area, sowing date, degree ofinfection with pests and diseases, number of insufficient irrigations andfarmers' experience appeared to be the most important factors determiningwheat output in the Gezira scheme. The off-farm income appeared to havenegative effects on wheat production, because of its timing contradictionswith some important agricultural operations. The farmers' gender, landtenure, land preparation, marital status and farm location with respect tothe irrigation canal, represented the most important socio-economicfactors determining farmers' efficiencies of wheat production in theGezira scheme.

A not of Resurgence of the Cotton Stemborer Sphenoptera gossypii Conte as a Serious Pest in the Irrigated Schemes in Sudan

this study was conducted to investigate complaints by farmers in New HalfaAgricultural Corporation (NHAC), Gezira Scheme, Rahad and Suki agricultural schemesabout wilting, drying and death of cotton plants during the 2012-2013 season which wasthe first season for planting the genetically-modified Bt cotton (CN-CO2). A survey wasconducted and showed drying and death of young plants and wilting of older ones. Alongitudinal section of the stem revealed the presence of white worms of up to 3 cm inlength and white shiny pupae, together with coleopteran beetles. The insect wasidentified as Sphenoptera gossypii. The damage was mainly in the variety CNCO2 butindividual plants of the local varieties Hamid, Abdeen and Barakat were also infestation.The highest percentage of infestation was 30% in NHAC while the average infestationwas 2% to 3% in the Gezira scheme and was little in the Rahd scheme. The stem borerwas a serious pest of cotton in the 1920s and 1903s but as a result of clean-up campaignsand adherence to technical guidelines the local varieties, except Sakel, could surviveunaffected. Introduction of the extremely susceptible variety (CNCO2) in large areas inthe irrigated schemes, which are plentiful of the pest, led to serious damage to the crop.During October 2012, farmers from New Halfa Agricultural Corporation(NHAC) complained of drying, wilting and death of cotton plants in theirfields; the incident was especially higher in the introduced geneticallymodified Bt cotton variety (CN-CO2) than on the local variety "Hamid".The season (2012-13) ranked first, for commercial planting of the Btcotton in NHAC, and other irrigated schemes in Sudan. Thus, the Btcotton was blamed as a causative of the incident. The CN-CO2 seeds

Effects of Melatonin Priming on Seed Germination of Wheat under Salt Stress

Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) has been identified as a new growth regulator in plants due to its beneficial effect in abiotic stress reduction. The experiment was conducted at the Wheat Cultivation Department Laboratory, Gezira Scheme, Sudan. To investigate the effects of melatonin priming in alleviating the negative effect of salt stress on seed germination of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv Elnilein and Imam). Six concentrations were used: control, salt (300 mM NaCl) and four concentrations of melatonin (M) 10, 100, 500 and 1000 μM with salt (300 mM NaCl) add to each concentration: CT, ST, M1+ST, M2+ST, M3+ST, M4+ST. The treatments were arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The parameters studied included: seed germination rate (%), germination index, mean germination time (d), lengths (cm) and dry weight (mg) of coleoptile and radicle, starch, soluble sugar, and sucrose concentrations, amylase activities, activities of the antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and catalase (CAT), reactive oxygen species (ROS) including malondialdehyde (MDA), Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) contents and superoxide (O2-) production rate, abscisic acid (ABA). The parameters of seedling establishment were: Shoot height, root length, fresh and dry weight of shoot and root. The treatment M3+ST (500 μM Melatonin + 300 mM NaCl) had the highest seed germination rate, germination index lengths and dry weights of coleoptile and radicle, soluble sugar, sucrose concentrations, amylase and antioxidant enzymes activities, and ABA concentration, seedling shoot and root length, and fresh and dry weight of shoot and root in Imam and Elnilein cultivars, respectively.
 The study revealed that melatonin priming effectively alleviates salt stress during seed germination and seedling establishment in winter wheat.

Evaluation of Four Tillage Methods Operating parameters by Overall index using Analytical Hierarchy Procedure and Compromise Programming Technique in the Gezira Heavy Clay Soils

This work was excuted during seasons 2018/2019, and 2019/2020, in Tayba Block-the Sudan - Gezira central clay plains, to evaluate the field operation performance of four land preparation methods using three tillage equipment: chisel plow "intensive tillage", disc harrow "medium tillage", ridger "minimum or reduced tillage" and no tillage machine. An overall operation index is estimated from four measured machine operating characteristics. Diagnosis of land preparation methods was made using analytical hierarchy method for weight assignment for assignment of relative weights for the operating parameters, and compromise programming technique for ranking of tillage methods. The experiment was conducted as a factorial experiment with RCBD, the LSD test at 1%and 5 % was used to compare between means. Results indicate that no significant differences (P<0.05) in field efficiency between Chisel plow and ridger and harrow showed the least efficiency value. There is significant differences in fuel consumption rate between all treatments with highest consumption is by Chisel plow and lowest is by ridger. The significantly highest rear wheel slippage is attained by ridger while there is no significant differences in that resulted from chisel or disc harrow. The significantly highest field capacity (P<0.05) is attained by ridger followed by harrow and then chisel plow. The analytical hierarchy procedure ranked the machines operation indicators in descending order by weight values of 1.02, 0.62, 0.29 and 0.12 for. Multi-criteria analysis by compromise programming technique results in overall indices of tillage equipments: ridger, chisel plow, disc harrow in descending values of 67.53, 61.00, and 57.29 respectively. The overall performance index (OPI) for the operation of the agricultural equipment could be used to take the tillage decision-making process by selecting the most effective machinery to give optimum seed bed with minimum energy input. However, it is not possible to calculate the overall index for no tillage method because without using a machine there is no fuel consumption, no field efficiency, no field capacity, and no wheel slippage. This imply that for heavy clay soils of Gezira Scheme and in other similar environments it is recommended to use reduced tillage "ridging only" as the most technically feasible tillage method, other wise use chisel plowing if funds are available.

Energy use Pattern in Cotton and Groundnut Production in the Gezira Scheme, Gezira State, Sudan

This research examines the energy use patterns and energy input–output analysis of cotton, and groundnut in the Gezira Scheme which is the largest irrigated scheme in Sudan. Inputs and energy sources were determined by a face to face questionnaire applied to 200 farmers. For the cotton crop, the inputs and output energy were calculated as 27659.28MJ/ha and 28084MJ/ha, respectively. Fertilizer was the highest input (62.29%), followed by water (28.10%). Energy efficiency, energy productivity, specific energy and water productivity were 1.01, 0.09kg/MJ,11.62MJ/kg, 0.31kg/m3, respectively. For the groundnut crop, the inputs and output energy were calculated as10222.83MJ/ha and 67372MJ/ha, respectively. Water was the highest input (72.25%), followed by seeds (8.56%). Energy efficiency, energy productivity, specific energy and water productivity were 6.59, 0.40kg/MJ,2.51MJ/kg, 0.29kg/m3, respectively.it could be concluded that these crops are heavily dependent on nonrenewable energy.

Potential impacts of failure of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam on downstream countries

AbstractThis study assesses the potential downstream impacts in the event of a flood due to failure, either structural or operational, of the Grand Ethiopian renaissance dam (GERD). The following two failure scenarios were modeled as part of this study: Dam Break (DB) and MisGuided Dam Operation (MGDO) as a result of a false flood signature. The DB scenario shows that 40% of the intensively cultivated Gezira Plain would be inundated with average water depths of more than 10 m, resulting in catastrophic loss of highly productive farmlands, livestock, inhabitants, and infrastructure. This scenario did not model damage further downstream since for this magnitude flood it will require another flood routing model given the more complex geometry downstream of the Gezira Plain. In the MGDO scenario flood flows are lower and would have no impact on the Gezira Plain but would reach the High Aswan Dam (HAD) and fill it to its maximum allowable capacity for two and a half months and it would require emergency releases for more than 5 months. The required emergency releases from the HAD are expected to create significant flooding downstream. To accommodate the potential of extra releases from the GERD during flood events the operational rules for the HAD should be modified. However, providing more flood buffer at the HAD will limit the live capacity that is currently used for securing downstream flow requirements during drought periods. One of the expected impacts of increasing the flood buffer would be a reduction of the HAD's contribution to Egypt's GDP. Based on the results of this study the operational rules for the GERD and the HAD should be evaluated and possibly modified.

TRANSMISSION OF SCHISTOSOMIASIS IN THE GEZIRA SCHEME, GEZIRA STATE, SUDAN. (An investigated study in August 1999 – July 2000)

TRANSMISSION OF SCHISTOSOMIASIS IN THE GEZIRA SCHEME, GEZIRA STATE, SUDAN. (An investigated study in August 1999 – July 2000)

Biocontrol of Striga hermonthica (Del.)Benth. in Sorghum

Twenty fungal isolates were collected from diseased Striga plants at the Faculty of Agriculture Demonstration Farm , University of Khartoum Farm and the Gezira Scheme .Eighteen isolates were identified as Aspergillus niger while only two of the isolates were identified as A. flavus .Pathogenicity tests of these fungi on Striga hermonthica in vitro and in the glasshouse revealed the potential to utilize Aspergillus spp. in Striga hermonthica biocontrol

Distribution and identification of luteovirids affecting chickpea in Sudan

In Sudan yellowing viruses are key production constraints in pulse crops. Field surveys were carried out to identify luteovirids affecting chickpea crops in the major production regions (Gezira Scheme and River Nile State). A total of 415 chickpea plant samples with yellowing and stunting symptoms were collected during the 2013, 2015 and 2018 growing seasons. Serological results (Tissue-blot immunoassays) showed that Luteoviridae and Chickpea chlorotic dwarf virus (CpCDV, genus Mastrevirus, family Geminiviridae) were the most common viruses, with rare infections with Faba bean necrotic yellows virus (FBNYV, genus Nanovirus, family Nanoviridae). Some samples reacted only with a broad-spectrum luteovirid monoclonal antibody (5G4-MAb), and others showed cross reactions between the specific monoclonal antibodies, suggesting the occurrence of new luteovirid variants. Serological results were confirmed by amplification with reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and sequencing of the partial coat protein gene. Molecular analyses provided a basic, sufficient and reliable characterization for four viruses affecting chickpea that belong to Polerovirus (family Luteoviridae). These were Cucurbit aphid-borne yellows virus (CABYV), Pepper vein yellows virus (PeVYV), Pepo aphid-borne yellows virus (PABYV) and Cotton leafroll dwarf virus (CLRDV), that shared high similarity with the type sequences. Phylogenetic analyses also revealed high similarity to luteovirid species. This study has established reliable, rapid and sensitive molecular tools for the detection of luteovirid species.

Influence of Combine Harvester Forward and Reel Speeds on Wheat Harvesting Losses in Gezira Scheme (Sudan)

The present study was conducted at the demonstration farm of Massaed Technology Transfer Center, Gezira State, during 2016/2017, to evaluate the effect of combine harvester forward and reel speed on wheat harvesting losses (total header, processing and total machine losses). Three combine harvester forward speeds (4, 5 and 6 km/h), and three reel speeds (25, 35 and 45 rpm) were used in the experiment, which was arranged in a split plot design with three replications. The results showed that forward speed 4 km/h with reel speed 25 rpm recorded the lowest total header losses (31.8 kg/ha) while the highest losses (90.1 kg/ha) was recorded by the forward speed 6 km/h and reel seed 25 rpm. The lowest processing losses was obtained from the forward speed 6 km/h with reel speed 25 rpm (13.2 kg/ha) while the highest was recorded by the forward speed 4 km/h with the reel speed 45 rpm (38.2 kg/ha). Forward speed 4 km/h with reel speed 25 rpm recorded the lowest total machine losses (56.7 kg/ha) which represents 9.5% of the total yield as compared to 118.0 kg/ha which represents 19.67% of the total yield recorded by the same speed with 45 rpm reel speed. It was concluded that the forward speed 4 km/h with reel speed 25 rpm was appropriate for reducing combined wheat harvesting losses under Gezira Scheme conditions.

The COVID-19 vaccines rush: participatory community engagement matters more than ever

The COVID-19 vaccines rush: participatory community engagement matters more than ever

Composition and Distribution of Aquatic Weeds in some Minor Canals, Gezira Scheme, Sudan (2018)

Excessive growth of aquatic weeds in irrigation systems is a worldwide problem. In Sudan, many irrigation schemes have been greatly affected by aquatic weeds such as Gezira scheme. The objective of the study was to evaluate the community composition and distribution of aquatic weeds in some minor canals in the Gezira scheme in 2018. The study area covered six minor canals at Centre Group at Gezira Scheme. Each minor canal was divided into three sections; head, middle and tail (18 sampling sites). The sites were surveyed once in every month for a period of three months during summer and winter seasons. The community composition of aquatic weeds was detected by visual observation, whereas the distribution of aquatic weeds was determined by calculation of percentage of relative frequency. Data were subjected to descriptive analysis and to analysis of variance. The results indicated that the community composition in the six minor canals consists of four groups of aquatic weeds as follows; floating, emergent, submergent and bank aquatic weeds and consisted of 12 species belonging to nine families. Results showed considerable differences in distribution throughout the year. The most dominant species within the groups were; Vossia cuspidata (33% - 41%) within the group of floating weeds, Cyperus alopecuroides (87% - 55%) within the group of emergent weeds and Cynodon dactylon (75% - 83%) within the group of bank aquatic weeds during both summer and winter seasons. Submergent weeds present only in winter season in one species Najas pectinata. Also, results of relative frequency within all aquatic species showed that Vossia cuspidata and Cynodon dactylon were the most dominant species. These finding gives many insights about the problems of aquatic weeds in minor canals and would be useful in the management and control of aquatic weeds.

Complex adaptive system approach for improved irrigation management: The case of the Gezira scheme in Sudan*

AbstractSeveral factors contribute to poor irrigation management. A set of natural, social, environmental, institutional and technological variables can collectively result in complex and messy problems. Traditional engineering systems are not well suited for addressing coupled and interlinked types of problem. To this end, a hybrid network model is introduced to study the cumulative impact of these variables on the performance of irrigation projects. The model is based on the theory of complex adaptive systems and agent‐based modelling. The Gezira scheme in Sudan is used as a case study in order to convert the vicious circle through adopting an improved and most viable irrigation management system. Six key variables are selected as dominant driving forces that influence the performance of the irrigation scheme. These are scheme governance, agricultural research, agricultural inputs and technologies, farmers, water user associations and the irrigation agency responsible for operation and maintenance. The scope of the analysis is to explore the dynamics of system enhancement under different scenarios of policy intervention. The results revealed the need for balanced and diversified investment in all entities to ensure sustainable growth. The findings emphasize the importance of having interventions with moderate growth patterns that seek to enhance cooperation and positive feedback among entities.