German Theologian Research Articles

“The Main Questions of Christian Ethics”: Following Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s Barcelona Lecture

The intellectual legacy of Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–1945), one of the most influential theologians of the 20th century, has been interpreted in various ways. His ideas were both mooched off of and developed. His judgments regarding certain elements of Christian ethics were no exception. In order to avoid falling into the trap of modern interpreters of Bonhoeffer, who often tailor the views of this theologian to fit their own paradigm, accepting some of his ideas and ignoring others, it is necessary to independently research the entirety of his works, which have survived and reached us thanks to his student and friend, Eberhart Bethge. Therefore, the purpose of this essay is to comprehensively examine those parts of Bonhoeffer’s work that receive the least attention in wider theological circles. In other words, we will see the statements of a different Bonhoeffer, not the one that is known to the general readership. Bonhoeffer’s dissertations, books, articles, sermons, lectures, correspondence, poetry, etc., totaled sixteen volumes. The Lutheran theologian developed his concept of ethics throughout his (unfortunately, very short) life, but this concept is known mostly for Bonhoeffer’s key work of the ‘40s, aptly titled – “Ethics.” Therefore, in order to understand where his original and sometimes radical ethical ideas originate, one should turn to the texts of Dietrich Bonhoeffer and his biography. The relevance of our material lies in the fact that the Ukrainian reader is largely unfamiliar with Bonhoeffer’s early works. Moreover, today’s Ukrainian reader only has a translation of his letters and notes from prison. To investigate the ethical teaching of this German theologian, researchers should start with his Barcelona lecture and move to his life’s work, that is, to the aforementioned “Ethics.” Bonhoeffer’s work is relevant more than ever in the current Ukrainian context, which is essentially a state of war with Russia’s invading horde and in which ordinary Christians (and not only they) face ethical challenges on a daily basis. And although Bonhoeffer’s texts are written, to a greater extent, from the position of a German (it is difficult to justify the wars that Germany waged in the 20th century), he was still right on certain issues that will be discussed in the essay.

Reflections on Peter Nagel’s article

This is a response to an article written by South African New Testament scholar, Peter Nagel. The article draws on the thoughts of another South African New Testament scholar Andries van Aarde and of German theologian Bernhard Lohse, on the history of the doctrine of the Trinity. Concluding observations include inquiring as to how the church will effectively address this type of study in its deliberations and decisions.

CITY-STATE IN THE TREATISE BY J. V. ANDREAE: A VISION OF HARMONY AND ORDER

The article highlights the features of the architecture and urban planning structure of the utopian city-state described by the German theologian Johannes Valentinus Andrea in the treatise «Description of the Republic of Christianopolis» which was written in 1619. The aim of this article is a detailed analysis and graphic reproduction of the urban planning and architectural features of the utopian city described by J. V. Andreae. One of the tasks is to compare the structure of the city-state he recreated with the layout of the utopian settlements of T. More, T. Campanella and A. F. Doni, as those written in approximately the same period and depicting utopian states located on remote islands. Republic of Christianopolis is built in the shape of a perfect square, symbolizing order and rationality. Each side of the city is of equal length, and all the streets are laid out to form a regular, neat grid. In the center of the city there is a large square with a temple. This temple serves as the spiritual and civic nucleus of the city, underscoring the significance of religion and communal life in a utopian society. The city-state is divided into different zones according to their functional purpose. There are separate plots for residential buildings, administrative buildings, scientific institutes and agricultural areas. Such planning reflects a desire for efficiency and organization. Residential buildings are organized in such a way that each family has adequate housing with sufficient space for comfortable living. Gardens are located around the houses, which helps to create a public space for communication and interaction between residents. Despite the utopian nature of the society, the city has defensive structures such as walls and towers, which indicate a desire to protect the city from external threats. The article depicts a schematic general plan of the city of Christianopolis, conventional plans and sections of buildings. A review of the urban design features in J.V. Andreae's utopia compared to those in the works by T. More, A. F. Doni, and T. Campanella reveals common tendencies typical for that era, such as the ideal city shape, a preference for symmetry and centralized planning. It should be highlighted that in the treatise «Description of the Republic of Christianopolis», there is a more distinct zoning of areas and division of the population. J. V. Andrea created a utopian society where scientific knowledge and Christian faith are harmoniously combined. Christianopolis is depicted as a place where education and spirituality are integrated, reflecting the ideals of its era and the pursuit of knowledge. Keywords: utopia, symmetrical planning, urban structure, city fortifications, residential buildings.

A Republican of Faith: Adolf von Harnack’s Public and Intellectual Activity, 1914–1930

Abstract This paper focuses on the prominent German theologian Adolf von Harnack in his capacity as a public intellectual during the Weimar Republic. The few works of scholarship that address Harnack’s Weimar years at any length are in German, and the barely extant Anglophone literature, severely outdated, largely neglects to evaluate adequately the evolution and scope of Harnack’s pedagogical and theological positions as well as of the institutional power he commanded. Drawing principally from Harnack’s writings, both personal and published, before World War I until his death in 1930, this essay seeks to chart his intellectual development during the final years of his life and to survey how he translated his liberal theological principles into loyalty to the Weimar constitution. Public intellectuals such as Harnack were able to serve the public good in multifaceted, unquantifiable ways without attaching themselves to a particular party or to an explicitly partisan cause. By examining Harnack’s public and theological activity, I intend to provide a more holistic look at intellectual life in the Weimar Republic and to advocate for both a less restrictive definition of “public intellectual” and a broader conception of “political activism.”

The Oxford History of Modern German Theology. Volume 1 1781–1848 ed. by Grant Kaplan and Kevin M. Vander Schel (review)

The Oxford History of Modern German Theology. Volume 1 1781–1848 ed. by Grant Kaplan and Kevin M. Vander Schel (review)

“Speeches on Religion” by Friedrich Schleiermacher in the Vision of Kyiv Academic Fedir Ornatskyi: an Example of Apologetic Reflection

In this article, we delve into the religious readings of notable Kyiv academic professors from the late 19th to the early 20th centuries. Their works contain a wealth of empirical evidence and theoretical concepts that are crucial to understanding the development of the “science of religion” within the local intellectual tradition. We’re showcasing the work of Fedir Ornatskyi, a scholar from Kyiv Theological academy. Our analysis focuses on one of Ornatskyi’s notable pieces, which delves into the religious perspectives of Friedrich Schleiermacher, a renowned German theologian. A researcher from Kyiv is updating the accomplishments and ideas of F. Schleiermacher, aiming to find connections between the cultural, intellectual, and ideological situations of the late 18th and late 19th centuries. This includes the crisis of religiosity and the rejection of church institutions. Following this vision, F. Ornatskyi is interested in exploring the limitations of rationalist theology. He aims to understand F. Schleiermacher’s search for arguments supporting religion based on inner experience. However, the Kyiv researcher demonstrated that many of the German theologian’s ideas went beyond traditional orthodox church discourse, despite his apologetic motivation. F. Ornatskyi criticises his opponent’s controversial and odious statements, such as the absolutization of subjectivity and sensuality in religion; pantheism and impersonalism; subjectivism and relativism in religious knowledge; denial of the connection between religion and morality; speculative evaluations of specific religions, especially Christianity. At the same time, the Kyiv academician’s study of Schleiermacher’s stories about the relationship between cognitive and emotional-sensual components of religion demonstrates the elements of religious analysis, which combines historical, structural, psychological and phenomenological approaches; the seeds of the psychology of religion and religious cognitivism are found. The modern interpretation of F. Ornatskyi’s work provides a new perspective on Schleiermacher’s ideas, foreshadowing contemporary trends in religious evolution in the post-secular era.

Redefining Apocalypse in Blake Studies

Michael Stone argues that biblical scholars sow confusion by defining the ancient apocalypses in terms of the eschatological content or worldview that many contain (their “apocalypticism”) at the expense of other defining features. This conflation of apocalypse with eschatology emerged with the first comprehensive study of the apocalypses, by the German theologian Friedrich Lücke in 1832. The problem has been exacerbated in our time by the ubiquitous use of the term “apocalypse” in the media, popular culture, the churches, the arts, academe, and environmental studies, which has all but emptied the term of its core meaning as “revelation” or “disclosure.” When “the apocalypse” is invoked, it most often refers to a large-scale catastrophe or cataclysm, usually involving the collapse of civilization or the end of the world. Such references comport better with the concept of eschatology, the study of last things or the “end” of history, than with apocalypse. The terminological confusion appears in the history of Blake criticism as well, from S. Foster Damon, through Northrop Frye, Harold Bloom, and Morton Paley, to more recent work by Steven Goldsmith and Lucy Cogan. It is marked by an uncritical and inconsistent use of “apocalyptic” or “the apocalypse” to refer primarily to an end-time judgment. A scholar who has resisted this critical conflation in both biblical and Blake criticism is Christopher Rowland, who wrote the landmark book The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity (1982), as well as Blake and the Bible (2010). Rowland, along with a burgeoning cadre of biblical scholars who address the issue, can help bring more precision to the way these concepts are used in Blake studies.

The limits of rational knowledge of God according to Joseph Ratzinger

Joseph Ratzinger’s theological thought is distinguished by the conviction that the Christian knowledge of God is closely associated with the concept of the Logos. Therefore, in his reflection, Joseph Ratzinger is a theologian who seeks to render the mystery of God in positive terms. Yet, it would be a mistake to leave this statement without adding that in the rational knowledge of God, theology should at the same time confront what constitutes the limit of rational knowledge. The aim of this article is therefore to provide an overview of how Joseph Ratzinger pointed to the limits of the rational knowledge of God. A two-step method was adopted to achieve this goal. With reference to the synthetic approach, it first accounts for the place that the question of the rational knowledge of God takes in J. Ratzinger’s theological reflection; then it points out how, according to the German theologian, we should understand the apophatic dimension of all theological knowledge; namely, that God, being the infinite Love, can only be known in aspects, and only in the attitude of surrender. In the next step, the most significant aspects of Joseph Ratzinger’s theological reflection on theological knowledge were selected. The analysis of representative texts demonstrates how the German theologian understands limits in the rational knowledge of God. Thus, the understanding of rationality closed to the knowledge of God was presented first, along with the requirements that reason has to meet in order to open itself to the knowledge of God. Then it was demonstrated which of the most important areas of J. Ratzinger’s theological reflection refer to the limits of rational knowledge, and how they do it. The article concerns the limits of knowledge determined by the Revelation, the mystery of God, and the personal centre of Revelation – Christ, as well as the ecclesiastical nature of the creed.

Albrecht Ritschl on Theology as System: Considering the Structure of Modern Theology

Albrecht Ritschl (1822–1889) is a key representative of nineteenth-century German theology. As such, he is emphatic that dogmatics has to be presented in systematic form. This article will analyse in detail the meaning and significance of this demand in Ritschl's work. It will be shown that the systematic shape of theology was for Ritschl a wedge issue that permitted him to subject some individuals and traditions to a sharp critique while aligning himself with others. Among those singled out for criticism are Philipp Melanchthon and Friedrich Schleiermacher. Yet Schleiermacher, ironically, also emerges as perhaps the most important influence on Ritschl's concept of the theological system. The article will conclude with reflections on advantages and disadvantages of developing theology as a system in the tradition Ritschl represented and shaped.

Confessional Lutheranism and German Theological Wissenschaft: Adolf Harless, August Vilmar, and Johannes Christian Konrad von Hofmann by James Ambrose Lee II

Reviewed by: Confessional Lutheranism and German Theological Wissenschaft: Adolf Harless, August Vilmar, and Johannes Christian Konrad von Hofmannby James Ambrose Lee II Mark Mattes Confessional Lutheranism and German Theological Wissenschaft: Adolf Harless, August Vilmar, and Johannes Christian Konrad von Hofmann. By James Ambrose Lee II. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2022. xii + 307 pp. This study examines the defense of theology as an academic discipline within the German university offered by three leaders in the Neo-Lutheran confessional awakening, Adolf Harless, August Vilmar, and J. C. K. von Hofmann. While theology had long enjoyed a privileged position in the university as a forum for pastoral formation, its status within the academy increasingly came under scrutiny in the early nineteenth century as the natural sciences gained ascendency, providing the paradigm of rationality (7). Historically, university-trained civil servants, such as lawyers, doctors, and ministers, tended to support the status quo. In response, many Enlightenment figures, critical of both church and state, did their thinking outside the academy. For these thinkers, knowledge was increasingly viewed as "science," the systematic ordering of a discipline into a whole that not only gets results but also supplied methods for public scrutiny (24–25). Hence, theology was increasing legitimated not on the basis of its ability to offer truth but instead because clergy helped promote morality in public life. For Kant, since the university existed to support the state, the discipline of theology was justified because it was useful for social stability, but not because it could deliver truth. In response, with the renewal of interest in confessional theology in Germany early in the nineteenth century, Neo-Lutheran theologians tried to find ways to present theology as a science. They appealed to the philosopher Schelling who advocated that the natural sciences implicitly assumed a larger, living unified body of knowledge, a "primordial knowledge," a supposition of the "absolute," as the ground for their intelligibility (45). They could also appeal to Schleiermacher who sought a covenant between theology and science (66) by affirming God as the transcendental ground who guaranteed the correlation of thought and being (77). Harless, Vilmar, and von Hofmann rejected rationalistic theologies which accommodated to reason alone as the ground of truth. [End Page 214]Instead, each appealed to an experience of dependence upon God as the basis for life, as well as the forgiveness of sins, and new birth. They argued for a churchly theology, but also, in the case of Harless and von Hofmann, that theology is a science. Harless, like Schelling, saw theology as a science because it offered an overarching unity, beholden to both experience and the confessions, which could join its various parts into a single, organic body (125). He developed an "encyclopedia" approach to theology which neither deduced its system of truth from a general principle nor merely proof-texted from the Bible (136), but instead linked its various topics on the basis of an inner logic which anticipated a teleological fulfillment of created beings in God, as mediated through Christ (137). In contrast, Vilmar was not inclined to accommodate to empirical views of science and disowned the designation of theology as a science. Unlike science which moves from particular observations to general laws, Vilmar posited that theology begins with its distinctive "object" and then considers how the individual parts relate to it (159). Vilmar understood theology to be grounded in the actual events or facts ( Thatsache) of Jesus's ministry, but that the reality of these events had a trans-historical character, since they continued in the witness of the church (162). While Vilmar would advocate an "unscientific theology" (192), his proposal was deeply enmeshed within the debate concerning the relation between religion and science in his day. Von Hofmann argued that science could not be reduced to a mere cognitive act because truth was not the sum of all knowledge. Instead, truth existed for the common good (205). Not surprisingly, von Hofmann was opposed to any reduction of truth to the natural sciences (209). The essence of Christianity is to present the fellowship between God and humanity realized in Jesus Christ (215). Theology's vocation is to unfold, in a comprehensive and systematic way, this relationship as...

Conformed to the Image of Christ: Evaluating Approaches to Spiritual Formation

In his letter to the Church in Ephesus, Paul writes that every disciple of Jesus ought to “make God’s activity the pattern for their lives” and become Christlike by Andrew T. Lincoln. Every disciple’s goal is to imitate the perfect image of God—Jesus Christ. This imitation is possible through practical obedience, as the German theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer stated. Keeping in mind that the disciple’s end goal is to imitate Jesus, it is deemed essential to evaluate Spiritual formational approaches that are viewed as scaffolds in conforming to the image of Christ. The research seeks to critically analyze four approaches to Spiritual formation to appreciate their strengths and identify their weaknesses and evaluate their effectiveness to determine if such approaches can help believers in conforming to the image of Christ. Thus, the thesis of this article is to argue for the quintessential role of the Holy Spirit, the essential responsibility of the human agent, and the indispensable role of the Christian community, which are deemed crucial for effective Spiritual formational approaches.

Metamorphosis

Approaching the numinous is something that has forged a deep bond between art and religion in European cultural history. In the wake of Kant and Schleiermacher, the German theologian Ulrich Barth elaborates four constitutive elements that distinguish both aesthetic and religious experience: Fullfillment of meaning, interruption, passivity, and transcendence. From Raphael to Caspar David Friedrich to Vincent van Gogh and Paul Cézanne, impressive examples can be found of how these dimensions oscillate between religion and art. Nevertheless, there is a limit: art can, but does not have to, approach the numinous. Art can act as an eye-opener, as a school of perception, as an initiation into what Robert Bellah calls "beyonding"; art can lift the veil that lies over our everyday perception. Religion lives from the numinous. The task of religion is to use symbolic, ritual, and conceptual means to present the mystery of the world and the prospect of salvation in a way that is so tangible and concrete that people can receive support and comfort for their lives from it.

Public Theology as Cultural Witness: Christological Contours for “Times That Are A’Changin’”

Churches in Europe are being faced with a transformation that can be described as a seismic shift. In order to face the challenge of cultural witness in this context, this contribution proposes a Christologically contoured public theology. This will be spelt out in four consecutive steps. After a brief introduction on the paradigm of public theology, the second part tackles the question of addressees. Is the witness of public theology directed at the church or at the world? Making use of the insights of German theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer, this contribution argues for going beyond the binary and understanding the one Christ-reality as the frame of reference for public theology and cultural witness. The third part seeks to uncover the transformative power of Christology for public witness by making use of the traditional dogmatic figure of the munus triplex for the task of witnessing to the “public Christ” (Michael Welker). In the final part, three theses sketch out the implications of public witness in “times that are a-changin’.” (1) Public witness needs religious literacy and bilinguality. (2) For public witness, diaspora existence and missional existence are sisters. (3) Public witness is ecumenical, practical, and spiritual.

Paul Tillich on History and Socialism

Paul Tillich believes that the sacred and human history undergo a parallel development, which is ‘punctuated’ from time to time by the ‘breaking’ of the former within the latter during moments of special significance, kairoi; these become “centers” of human history. Such a ‘center’ must not be comprehended either in terms of quantity, or as a midpoint between past and future, or as a particular moment, but as something that makes coherent the manifestation of the Kingdom of God within the human collective existence. One of the understanding the German Theologian has concerning human history is that it is a succession of such ‘centers’. This is an ‘evolutionary’ view within the history of ideas, and a topic I dealt with in my work.

Tuska Benes, The Rebirth of Revelation. German Theology in an Age of Reason and History, 1750–1850. (German and European Studies.) Toronto, ON, University of Toronto Press 2022

Article Tuska Benes, The Rebirth of Revelation. German Theology in an Age of Reason and History, 1750–1850. (German and European Studies.) Toronto, ON, University of Toronto Press 2022 was published on February 1, 2023 in the journal Historische Zeitschrift (volume 316, issue 1).

God in Motion: A Critical Exploration of the Open Theism Debate, ManuelSchmid, Baylor University Press, 2021 (ISBN 978‐1‐4813‐1408‐4), viii + 208 pp., hb $24.99

God in Motion: A Critical Exploration of the Open Theism Debate, ManuelSchmid, Baylor University Press, 2021 (ISBN 978‐1‐4813‐1408‐4), viii + 208 pp., hb $24.99

НАРРАТИВНАЯ ТЕОЛОГИЯ Э. ЮНГЕЛЯ И ФИЛОСОФИЯ ИМЕНИ А.Ф. ЛОСЕВА

The article is concerned with an attempt to correlate the thinking of being and faith of Revelation in modern German evangelical theology and in Russian religious philosophy on the example of the work of E. Jungel and A.F. Losev. The author reveals the uniqueness of Jungel’s concept of the Word of God in comparison with the event nature of the Word of God by K. Barth. Jüngel’s narrative theory of the Gospel parable is comprehended in the article in the perspective of finding common ground and especially with the philosophy of symbolic reality, of the name by A. Losev. Jungel thinks through the event nature of Revelation as the Word of God proposed by K. Barth, using the fundamental ontology of M. Heidegger, He develops a theological hermeneutic ontology in which the event of the Word of God acquires the features of the Gospel narrative of the parable. As discursive theology, based on the idea of the metaphysical absolute, is destroyed from the German thinker’s point of view, narrative theology wins its positions. For the German theologian, the core of the Christian kerygma – the death of God – is organically linked to the tradition of nineteenth-century philosophical atheism and is revealed in it no less than in theology and religious philosophy. The Russian philosopher refers to Hegel’s dialectics and Husserl’s phenomenology in understanding the event of God’s Revelation. However, he tries to integrate them into the model of Neoplatonic metaphysics, from which, in his opinion, they were formed. Losev, to the extent that he is a metaphysician, proceeds in the concept of name, unlike Jungel, from the principle of the analogy of being rather than the analogy of belief. The name for the Russian philosopher is not a story, but an energy (force) that has an ontological nature. With him, the name reflects essence rather than describing an event. Losev goes back to Antiquity to reanimate Neoplatonic metaphysics by means of the concept of the symbol, burying in it Plato and the non-metaphysical forms of thinking of the Christian kerygma. Jungel’s theology funds the word-centrism of the Protestant cult and contributes to the explication of the new-modern image of Christianity in Protestantism. Losev, for his part, does not undertake to explicate beyond metaphysics the antique-medieval mystery nature of the Christian cult in Orthodoxy. He needs to convey in his philosophical and theological thought not only the verbal aspect of the event of Revelation. In order to express the aesthetic and mystical dimension of Revelation, the Russian philosopher engages the metaphysics of all-encompassing unity with the idea of an unchanging Absolute

19th-century German Theologian Albrecht Ritschl's View of the Bible - Comparison with His Contemporaries, Schleiermacher and Strauss -

본고는 19세기 독일 신학의 맥락에서 리츨의 성서관을 분석한다. 성서무오 또는 축자영감 교리는 성서에 대한 누군가의 견해를 평가하기 위해 사용된 표준의 기초였다. 그러나 계몽시대 이후 학문의 발전으로 성서의 권위가 의문시되자 신학자들의 반응은 저마다 달랐다. 특히, 리츨은 계몽주의 이후 유럽에서 가장 중요한 신학 자였다. 리츨이 성서를 어떻게 보는지를 설명하기 위해 본고는 그를 다른 두 명의 동시대 신학자인 슐라이어마허와 슈트라우스와 대조하고 비교한다. 슐라이어마허는 체험을 중심으로 신약만을 인정했으며, 슈트라우스는 성서를 신화로 규정하고역사적 검토에 따라 신뢰할 수 없는 책으로 보았다. 리츨은 두 사람의 기여, 체험과역사 비평을 비판적으로 수용했다. 그리고 리츨은 신약의 배경으로, 신약을 예수에 대한 증언으로 보고, 성서는 종교적 가치를 지니는 기독교의 경전임을 확립했 다. 본고는 성서무오나 축자영감 교리를 넘어 성경의 권위와 가치를 어떻게 받아들일 것인가에 대한 신학적 관점을 탐색하였다.This article analyses Ritschl's view of the Bible in the context of German theology in the 19th century. The doctrines of biblical inerrancy or of verbal inspiration have been the basis for the standards used to evaluate someone's views of the Bible. The theologians reacted, however, differently when the authority of the Bible was questioned by the academic advancement after the Age of Enlightenment. Ritschl was especially the most significant theologian in Europe following the Enlightenment. In order to explain how Ritschl views the Bible, this article compares and contrasts contrasts and compares him with two other contemporary theologians, Schleiermacher and Strauss. Schleiermacher recognized only the New Testament based on the common religious experience of believers, while Strauss regarded the Bible mythical and unreliable according to historical criticism. Ritschl critically accepted the contributions, religious experiences and historical criticism of both theologians. He saw the Old Testament as the background for of the New Testament, accepted the New Testament as records of Jesus relatively without distortion, and claimed that the Bible is a Christian scripture with religious values. This article presents an alternative to traditional theological perspectives on the authority and value of the Bible apart from the doctrines of biblical inerrancy or inspiration.

In God’s Image: An Anthropology of the Spirit by Michael Welker

Reviewed by: In God’s Image: An Anthropology of the Spirit by Michael Welker Derek Nelson In God’s Image: An Anthropology of the Spirit. By Michael Welker. Translated by Douglas W. Stott. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2021. xii + 155 pp. This book by German theologian Michael Welker continues and departs from his established approach and points of emphasis. It is the published version of his Gifford Lectures from 2019–2020, in an excellent translation from the German. Indeed, as a longtime reader of Welker’s books, I have not quite “heard” his voice in English as clearly as I have in this book, and for that reason, as well as the way the book synthesizes and moves forward Welker’s past theological program, it may be the best place to start in exploring Welker’s oeuvre. Welker’s book depends on two conceptual contrasts. One is the contrast between “multimodal” and what he calls “bipolar” thinking. Multimodal and multipolar thinking is Welker’s way of updating the work of the younger Hegel, who thought of human and divine spirit realizing themselves (literally, “making real”) in human justice and freedom. The divine Spirit, for Welker, cannot be simply contrasted to the human spirit in the way that “revelational” theologies tend to do. Multimodal means something like multi- centered and multi-medial. When I communicate multimodally, for instance, using text, images, technologies, music, and so on, I cannot use [End Page 440] simple opposites like “form” and “content,” such that what I want to say is one thing, and how I communicate is another. How I communicate becomes part of what I am communicating. Bipolarity is a problem for theology because “In situations in which one sensed that the spirit was somehow ‘more’ than could be articulated by bipolar reductions, the remedy . . . was simply to view it as a mysterious, nebulous, incomprehensible power” (25). Welker’s alternative is, as in past works, to develop a “realistic” theology. This means a theology that corresponds with, speaks to, and emerges from reality itself. Because reality is complicated and messy, so too must theology be. Here Welker draws on Bonhoeffer’s later insight that “Christianity . . . puts us into many different dimensions of life at the same time; in a way we accommodate God and the whole world within us. Life isn’t pushed back into a single dimension but is kept multidimensional, polyphonic” (109–10). This means that Welker’s conversation partners will necessarily be from across the spectrum of academic disciplines and avenues of high and popular culture. It also means that Welker’s theology is “realistic” in an additional way, namely being realistic about the awful and dreadful things human beings do when gripped by a false spirit of sin and evil. “Emotionalized public sentiment” is one such dangerous threat that Welker identifies (6–9) and comes back to throughout the book. The second conceptual contrast is the difference between the positive presence of some good versus the mere absence of its opposite. This, it seems to me, is the organizing principle for the second half of the book, which in four chapters deals with the human callings to justice, freedom, truth, and peace. Each of those goods can be defined negatively, such as “justice” being something like “conflict limitation” (51) and “freedom” being something like “to be without barriers” (69, quoting Rüdiger Bittner). But Christianity proposes and moves toward the institutionalization of the positive presence of real justice, and the moral beauty of real freedom. My two criticisms are related. The book is so evocative and, by Welker’s self-assigned task and the nature of the Gifford Lectures, so connected to multiple fields of human endeavor that a two-page conclusion (129–131) is hardly adequate. Welker’s principles of [End Page 441] selection for conversation partners also raise questions. Why does Welker deal with Arendt and Habermas in political theory and not others? Why Nicholas Luhmann on pluralism, and not others? For a sociologist everything is data. For a theologian, on the other hand, a careful sifting and principled engagement with non-theological disciplines is required. Notwithstanding these concerns, this book will be of service to any theologian...

Hoe God aanwezig is in het werk van Maarten ’t Hart

Maarten ’t Hart is widely regarded as the prototypical Dutch author who has left his Orthodox Reformed background behind. Yet religion is present throughout his work. In her dissertation Religion im Werk von Maarten ’t Hart (2022), German theologian Christina Bickel describes the playful manners in which ’t Hart deals with religion as an inspiring way to open the mind of modern man to transcedental reflections. Her interdisciplinary approach combining literary analysis, theological hermeneutics and homiletics, offers a surprising example of the reception of a Dutch author within a foreign cultural context.