German Occupation Research Articles

Dr. Arnold Mostowicz: ‘Not alone in space.’ Moral Injury and the Quest for extraterrestrial Redemption

ABSTRACT This article discusses Dr. Arnold Mostowicz, a Polish-Jewish public intellectual, writer, and physician who, under German occupation, was coerced to assist in selections to Nazi killing centers. Later in life, Mostowicz developed a fascination with Ancient Alien Theory, which alleges that space aliens introduced civilizational breakthroughs on Earth. Employing ufological theories, Mostowicz worked through his enforced complicity in genocide to recreate his postwar identity within an extraterrestrial paradigm. Drawing on Mostowicz’s oeuvre of popular science, science fiction, and autobiography, the article interprets themes and tropes in Mostowicz’s writings as texts of disguised reflection on ethical quandaries evoked by the Holocaust.

Weber as an engaged intellectual and a social scientist in the war

In Max Weber research in recent decades, the World War has played only a marginal role and is usually reduced to the topic of ‘Weber’s nationalism’. This article shows how Weber as a social scientist differs from the vast majority of German intellectuals and scientists in his attitude to the war, his practical behaviour and his political-programmatic plans. Weber not only spent 15 months in military service as a hospital officer, he also sought further employment as an expert on social policy in the German occupation administration in Belgium and Poland. The question of the social scientist Max Weber during the war years concerns firstly the interruption or continuation of his pre-war projects, that is, on the one hand his major work on the contemporary capitalist economy and contemporary economic science, and on the other hand his universal historical comparative research on the connection between religious systems and economic orders, and also the question of whether and to what extent the war influenced the content of this research. Secondly, it is about assessing the social-scientific dimension of his so-called ‘political writings’ and Weber’s plans for the organisation of a democratic post-war Germany based on them.

Modern risk assessment of the influences of natural and military man-made factors on the state of the historical buildings of the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra

During its thousand-year history, the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra has experiences many disasters. At the time when the fight against religion was part of the state ideology, the cathedral and monastery were closed, and its countless treasures were confiscated. Even in the turbulent 1930s, when the bolsheviks destroyed dozens of unique temples and churches in Kyiv, the Assumption Cathedral remained intact. Black days for the age-old shrine came during the German occupation in the fall of 1941. First, the shrine was looted, and many material and artistic valuables were taken. In November 1941, a series of explosions destroyed the main temple of the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra, which had served as a tomb for the Kiev princes. In February 2022, the war had started again in our country, and modern scientific technology allows us to assess the impact of military events on buildings of Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra from viewpoint of the level of seismic hazard assessment, which have lasted in Ukraine for more than two years, because Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The article presents the results of the analysis of the operation of devices for various purposes ― from the recording of seismic-acoustic waves, which have a high frequency of natural oscillations, to low-frequency ones, which are recorded by a laser inclinometer. The article also presents the results of modern automated data processing using various methods ― from the spectral method of signal recognition to the modern autopicker method of determining the time of arrival of waves AIC, which allows you to clearly determine the arrival time of vibration waves of various origins ― from the formation of cracks in historical buildings of the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra to vibration waves of technical and natural origin.

A New Moral World Order: Carl Alexander Simon and the German Colonization of Southern Chile

Abstract This article focuses on overlooked aspects of German colonization in southern Chile by examining the treatise Auswanderung und deutsch-nationale Kolonisation von Süd-Amerika mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Freistaates Chile (Emigration and German National Colonization of South America with Special Attention to the Free State of Chile) by Carl Alexander Simon. Simon was a Romantic artist who advocated for overseas colonization and settled in Chile to promote his ideas. His treatise, which blended poetry and Romantic rhetoric with political ideas, aimed to encourage German occupation of Chile and South America based on the supposed physical and intellectual superiority of the Germans. This article argues that Simon’s work is integral to understanding the intersection of Romanticism and German colonialism in the nineteenth century and how racial and nationalistic sentiments fuelled German colonialism in remote corners of the world. Furthermore, it contributes to discussions on German nation-building overseas and the connections between German colonialism and race, the legacies of German colonialism, German colonial fantasies, and indigeneity and Germanness. Finally, this study of Simon’s work complements existing research on German settlements in Africa, Asia and the Pacific from 1850 onwards, highlighting the importance of considering the role of Germany in the global colonial project.

PUBLISHED EYEWITNESS MEMORIES AS A SOURCE FOR STUDYING THE LABOUR MOBILIZATION OF THE GALICIAN POPULATION TO GERMANY IN 1941-1944

The purpose of the article is to analyze information about the policy of the Nazi occupation authorities in the territory of the Halychyna district, aimed at recruiting and transporting the able-bodied local population to work in Germany during the Soviet-German war, based on the published memories of eyewitnesses. The article highlights information about the peculiarities of the propaganda policy of the German occupation authorities, the purpose of which was to attract as many workers as possible to meet the economic needs of the Third Reich. Information about the activities of individual organizations (Ukrainian Central Committee, Ukrainian National Association, German Labor Front, etc.) was highlighted. One of the activities of these organizations was to provide comprehensive assistance to Galician workers at factories and in agriculture in Germany. A significant role in the work was assigned to the Ukrainian Central Committee, as it directly dealt with the affairs of Galician workers (certificates of Ukrainian nationality, cultural and material assistance, etc.) and assistance to their families. Information is provided on the methods of recruitment, transportation, and living conditions of Galician workers in Germany. The author also presents information about mass roundups of the local population for the purpose of transporting them to Germany and using them in the industrial and agricultural sectors of the Reich. Data on the participation in sabotage actions of members of the OUN-UPA with the aim of preventing the forced deportation of the Galician population to Germany are provided. In addition, information is provided on ways to avoid deportation to Germany and the consequences that awaited fellow villagers and families of the fugitives. The article draws attention to the data on the number of Galician people deported to Germany and the approximate share of workers in various fields of labor (factories, plants, agriculture, etc.). To summarize, we note that on the basis of published eyewitness accounts, the author analyzes the problem under study, namely the labor mobilization of the Galician population to Germany for the purpose of using it for the economic needs of the Third Reich.

Annihilation of the Jewish community of Kretinga in summer and autumn 1941

The article examines the annihilation of the Jewish community of Kretinga in summer and autumn 1941. The paper distinguishes two stages of the annihilation. The first stage was isolation of the Jews in the second half of June 1941, when around 340 Jewish men (between 14 and 60 years of age) were arrested in Kretinga Market Square on 24 June and about 540 Jewish women, children and elderly men were arrested between 26 and 27 June. The men were locked up in the synagogue, in the prison or in the police station, which, in addition to their main function, served as temporary concentration camps. Jewish women, children and elderly men (about 560 people) were forced into the small ghetto, which did not have self-government. Some data suggest that the ghetto was in Pryšmančiai Manor; other data suggest that it was in Kluonalių (Taikos) Street in Kretinga, in a former barn. Around 100 women inmates of the small ghetto were taken to the camp in Valteriškiai Village (Palanga rural area).The second stage of annihilation of the Jews was the actual extermination operations. Around 330 Jewish men were shot at the end of June 1941 in Kvecių Forest. It is likely that in August and September 1941, around 230 Jewish women, children and elderly men could have been shot and buried here also. So a total of around 560 Jews could have been buried in Kvecių Forest. Around 230 Jewish women, children and elderly men were shot or otherwise killed in Kretinga Jewish Cemetery. Seven Jewish men who were shot by the pond near the monastery in Kretinga were also buried here. So a total of around 237 members of the Jewish community of Kretinga rural area are buried here. On 12 October 1941, around 100 women of the Jewish community of Kretinga were shot in Kunigiškių Forest (Palanga rural area) together with other inmates of the camp located near Valteriškės Village, i.e. members of Palanga Jewish community. Kvecių Forest and Kretinga Jewish Cemetery are the final resting places not only of the Jews, but also of people of other nationalities suspected of being loyal to the Soviet regime. In total 43 non-Jewish people are buried in Kvecių Forest and 21 – in Kretinga Jewish Cemetery.The annihilation of the Jewish community of Kretinga in summer and autumn 1941 was a result of the collaboration between the German occupation authorities (German military commandant, civil administration, military police, and the Tilsit operational squad) and the Lithuanian authorities (municipal, public, security and criminal police and auxiliary police). Members of the Tilsit operational squad and officers of the security and criminal police of Kretinga District (Telšiai Region) take greatest responsibility for the annihilation of the Jewish community of Kretinga. These two institutions organised massacres of Jews and other people. Other institutions played a supporting role. The difference between Kretinga County and the other counties of Lithuania (e.g. Vilnius, Kaunas, Kėdainiai) is that the Lithuanian self-defence battalions were not engaged in the killing operations of Jews and other people and there were no large ghettos here like there were in Kaunas, Vilnius or Šiauliai.About 731 local residents indirectly contributed to the persecution and killing of Jews and other people in summer and autumn 1941 in Kretinga rural area and county; these were civil servants who worked at Lithuanian municipal institutions (32 persons), public police (93), security and criminal police (6), and auxiliary police (about 600 people). About 86 persons in the town and rural area of Kretinga contributed to the annihilation of Jews, specifically 4 municipal, 6 security and criminal police, 26 public police officers and around 50 members of the auxiliary police. It has been established that 242 out of 731 people carried out acts related to their indirect participation in the persecution and extermination of Jews and other people. It was also found that 242 people across Kretinga County took direct part in the extermination operations of Jews and other people, i.e. they participated in shooting and otherwise killing about 79 people, of which 11 were in the town and rural area of Kretinga.

THE FORMATION OF THE FRANKISH PERIOD AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE FIELD OF ONOMASTICS

This article is based on the linguistic study of the formation of the Frankish and its influence on the field of onomastics. The article highlights the opinions of historical researchers about the gradual formation of the Frankish period since ancient times, and sometimes these opinions create polemics between them. At the same time, it is said that throughout history, various tribes gathered in the territory of the Frankish empire and created a state and language, and these tribes' languages influenced on the field of onomastics. The article also reflects the presence of mythical considerations in the field of onomastics, the inclusion of an important lexicon in the field of toponymy as a result of the German occupation, as well as in the vocabulary of Gallo-Romance. It is noticeable that the names were formed by the bithematic and monothematic method by adding the suffixes -IÄCU, -VILLE and -CURT, and then the suffix -COURT on a chronological scale. The article provides information about the areas where the tribes settled within the empire and the necropolises, as well as the falsified place names created on the basis of hypocoristic (hypocritical) names around these necropolises through maps. The article concludes that, according to the new methodology of contact linguistics, all the toponyms included in the study are indeed Romanic formations, contrary to the widespread opinion that still tries to interpret them as Germanic derivatives. Thanks to archeology, it can be proven that the monothematic and hypocoristic variants of Frankish anthroponyms, which appeared as "small names" among the Franks and took on an "informal" character, were not used by the Roman population to create toponyms.<p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/soc/0721/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

Ukraine on Fire Cinema Novel by Oleksandr Dovzhenko: Saving Gesture of the Artist

The years of German-Soviet war (1941–1945) have become a period of special trials for the outstanding film director Oleksandr Dovzhenko. All hopes for the revival of the Ukrainian nation and its culture have turned out to be an illusion. The victory of the Soviet Union in the war has led to the collapse of the remnants of political and cultural autonomy in Ukraine, complete control of the imperial center over the processes of social and cultural life. Dovzhenko writes the film story Ukraine on Fire, which demonstrates the considerable resources of resistance of Ukrainians to totalitarian systems – both Soviet and German. In addition, Dovzhenko as an author reveals the intention of a national prophet who believes in his magical ability to save his people. The author has special sympathy for Ukrainian girls and women. They are killed, raped, humiliated. However, they remain special bearers of the nation mentality, its cultural and artistic memory. Its beauty! Therefore, the images of women are permeated with folklore and literary motifs, those voice out and materialize the world of Ukrainians who oppose the war. The story has drawn a lot of criticism from the dictator Stalin, criticism made public during a special meeting in the Kremlin. The accusations have been reduced to alleged manifestations of nationalism, revision of the very foundations of the Bolshevik empire. The work has been banned from publication and production in the cinema. Today, in the context of the new stage of war of the Russian Empire against Ukraine, the work in which the artist at the time of the disaster, is on the edge of the abyss and the non-existence of the people, comes to its defense, acquires special relevance and worldview expressiveness. Ukraine on Fire is distinguished by the special lyrical nature of the text, it is permeated with folk singing, folklore images and even rhythm. An amazing consonance with the folk melos, a powerful lyric-epic coverage of folk life. The completion of work on the film story has coincided with the beginning of the stay of Dovzhenko’s mother, Odarka Yermolaivna, in Moscow, in Dovzhenko’s apartment (after the end of the German occupation of Kyiv). The artist has recorded a number of folk songs from her, those have a significant impact on the work on the following scenarios – Chronicle of Flaming Years, Enchanted Desna, Poem of the Sea.

«Завоевать и уничтожить»: идеология фашистского оккупационного режима на территории Краснодарского края (июль 1942 г. – октябрь 1943 г.)

The article explores the German occupation rule in the Krasnodar Territory, which was formed between the summer of 1942 and the fall of 1943. The Fascists established a civil and military administrative machinery with the goal of financially looting the territory and physically destroy-ing the civilian population. When we examine the occupying regime’s ideology, we see that it is anti-human. Wehrmacht soldiers, special formations of the German Army, and traitors among lo-cal citizens were all direct participants in crimes against humanity and extermination of civilians. Mass executions of people occurred within the area of the Krasnodar area, which included the Adygea Autonomous Region. Archival sources reveal the reality of the population’s planned elim-ination, which included children and women. The atrocities of the Wehrmacht are documented in the acts of the Extraordinary State Commission for the Establishment and Investigation of the Atrocities of the Nazi Invaders and their Companions, which were compiled in all districts and cities throughout the region. Many of those who committed crimes were punished during the war, and this practice persisted after it ended.

The Opinio Juris and Opinio Moris in the Anglo-American Interventions During the Greek Civil War: An Archival Study of Legal Narratives

Abstract This article investigates the British and American interventions in Greece during the Greek Civil War, examining their legal and moral justifications. Using archival documents, the study uncovers two primary layers of discourse: the official diplomatic language of opinio juris (conviction of legality) and opinio moris (conviction of morality), alongside the covert political interests that drove these interventions. The research argues that British and American actions were primarily motivated by a ‘conviction of interest,’ with legal and moral narratives used tactically to justify their interventions. The archival materials reveal a notable lack of empathy and understanding from British and American officials regarding the trauma endured by the Greek populace due to the German occupation and collaborationist violence. Additionally, there was a significant neglect of the will of the Greek people. The study critically examines the Caserta and Civil Affairs Agreements, which provided a legal basis for British intervention, arguing that these agreements, when viewed in light of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, fail to justify the extent of foreign interference, thus questioning the authenticity of Greek consent. The article also explores the transition from British to American dominance in Greek affairs. As Britain faced economic constraints after the end of WWII, it ceded its role to the U.S., leading to the formulation of the Truman Doctrine and the implementation of the Marshall Plan. The U.S. intervention is analyzed through legal and geopolitical lenses, revealing a strategic focus on preventing communist expansion rather than providing purely legal or moral support for Greece’s recovery. Similar to British actions, American involvement often overlooked the political situation and the will of the Greek people, thereby contributing to prolonged instability.

Miraculum Leona Lustra – powstanie i dzieje firmy do 1945 roku

The “Miraculum” company, which was one of the most famous cosmetics’ producers in the interwar period and in the People’s Republic of Poland, was established in 1924. Its founder, Leon Luster, a doctor from a Jewish family, was one of the pioneers of dermatology and cosmetology in Poland. From the medical practice in Krakow and writing in the women’s press, he moved on to the production of cosmetics. The company’s success was based on innovative products and extensive advertising. The entrepreneurship of his son-in-law Witold Böhm was also of great importance. During the German occupation, “Miraculum” was taken over by the Germans. Leon Luster initially stayed in Kraków and supported the work of the factory, in 1941 he decided to move to Grybów, where he was hiding due to his Jewish origin. In 1943, handed over to the Germans, he probably ended his life in the ghetto in Nowy Sącz.

“Ik ben zoo diep gezakt door deze oorlog”

During the German occupation of the Netherlands in the 1940s, crime rates for petty theft rose considerably. As a result of shortages, forced labor, unemployment and war damages, many citizens resorted to property crime. Those who were caught, were in majority sentenced within the Dutch judicial system, by Dutch magistrates, most of whom had no pro-German beliefs. This article explores how suspects, judges and probation officers referred to the occupation circumstances during the judicial process. All three types of actors saw how these circumstances could lead to theft. However, pre-existing notions of property and its defense were not radically questioned during the occupation. The (implicit) expectation was that the harmful consequences of the Second World War would be of a temporary nature.

Sounds of Apocalypse: Music in Poland under German Occupation by Katarzyna Naliwajek (review)

Sounds of Apocalypse: Music in Poland under German Occupation by Katarzyna Naliwajek (review)

Community as Gesamtkunstwerk: Dick Ket’s Self-Portraiture and the Debt of Epic Film

Abstract This essay posits that Weimar-era film sets—in their evocation of Richard Wagner’s concept of the Gesamtkunstwerk—served as a previously unseen visual source for painters that in some cases pushed back against interwar aesthetics of power. Focusing on the Dutch figurative painter Dick Ket, it investigates the ways in which this artist’s self-portraits from 1930–1940 acted as a memory index of his experience of the mises-en-scènes in Fritz Lang’s 1924 epic two-part film Die Nibelungs through Langian devices such as heavy geometric patterning, leitmotifs and subjugation of the human figure to the set. Ket’s work evinces the artist’s own sensation of confinement in his parents’ home as a result of a terminal heart condition while also reckoning with Adolf Hitler’s extremist rhetoric and expansionist policies in the years that preceded the German Occupation of the Netherlands.

Psychosocial consequences of growing up as Austrian occupation children in post-World-War II Austria

ABSTRACT Background: During the post-World War II occupation of Austria, approximately 20,000–30,000 ‘children born of war’ (CBOW), also called occupation children were born through intimate contacts between Austrian women and occupation soldiers. Research on other CBOW populations indicates that CBOW mostly grow up under difficult conditions, sometimes with strong long-term mental health consequences. Objective: To examine whether comparable psychosocial consequences can be found in Austrian occupation children (AOC), a first quantitative study was carried out. Method: Child maltreatment, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and somatization, and general life satisfaction were assessed in a sample of 98 AOC using self-report instruments. Results were compared to a sample of German occupation children (GOC; N = 146). Results: High prevalence of above threshold full (10.2%) and partial (14.3%) PTSD, somatic (16.3%) and depressive (11.1%) symptomatology were found in AOC. They were at high risk of child maltreatment (e.g. emotional abuse: 53.6%), which was associated with current symptomatology. Notably, AOC tended to report high levels of general life satisfaction. No differences were found between GOC and AOC. Conclusions: Findings highlight the complex and long-term effects of developmental conditions and childhood maltreatment on mental health of CBOW, even decades later. Findings of high life satisfaction provide evidence of resilience and maturation processes across the lifespan.

“Reste en écho la voix” – Itzhak Katzenelson’s Dos lid fun oysgehargetn yidishn folk in Batia Baum’s French Translation

This essay offers a discussion of Batia Baum’s translation of Katzenelson’s elegy into French. Opening with a presentation of the Maison de la culture yiddish – Bibliothèque Medem and Baum’s achievements as a translator from Yiddish, the article highlights the significance of the poem written in France during the German occupation and published in Paris shortly after WW2. In an illustrative analysis, challenges of the text are addressed and Baum’s choices are presented.

Danish Ships in the Canary Islands during the Second World War

This article delves into the theme of Spanish neutrality during the Second World War from the standpoint of a series of circumstances surrounding a group of Danish ships that took refuge in the Canary Islands. The Third Reich attempted to prevent the departure of these vessels whereas the Allies sought to facilitate it. This study stems from consulting primary sources in archives in Spain, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Noteworthy among the main conclusions is that the Danish policy of co-operation with the German occupation retained the Danish ships in the archipelago’s ports until 1943 and that they only set sail after the Danish government resigned in 1943. The intention of the foreign policy of the Spanish government was to defend its own interests against pressures from the belligerents. Moreover, its neutralist shift initiated in August 1942 was reinforced by the change in the course of the war in favour of the Allies.

The role of the Rev. Albert Bereczky (1893–1966) in the Anti-German Resistance and in the Rescue of People (1944–45)

Albert Bereczky, the pastor of the Reformed Congregation on Pozsonyi Street (Budapest), joined the anti-German resistance after the German invasion of Hungary on 19 March 1944 and became one of its most committed activists. His friendship with Zoltán Tildy, President of the Smallholders Party, led Bereczky into the resistance movement, and he helped him to organize one of the main bodies of the movement, the Hungarian Front. Miklós Mester, State Secretary at the Ministry of Religion and Public Education, and Ottó Komoly, President of the Hungarian Zionist Federation, also became important associates. It is mainly in the light of the memoirs and diaries of the latter two that our study gives an insight into Bereczky’s multifaceted and varied activities, the main elements of which were liaising between different resistance groups and hiding those who had been persecuted on racial or political grounds. Bereczky also played a major role in the Reformed Church in Hungary’s outreach to Jews, for example, in organizing the ultimately unsuccessful public church protest against the deportations. Keywords: Albert Bereczky, Holocaust, German occupation of Hungary (1944–45), anti-German resistance movement, Zoltán Tildy, rescue of Jews80 évvel ezelőtt Bereczky

The newspaper 'Vinnytski visti' as a source on the activities of Ukrainian authorities under german occupation in 1941

The research aims to reveal the peculiarities of reflecting the activities of the Ukrainian authorities during the establishment of Nazi occupation in the local press ("Vinnytski Visti") and to indicate the source value of periodicals as an important resource for assessing the nature and competencies of local authorities in the Vinnytsia region. The research methodology is based on a comprehensive analysis of the complex phenomenon of press coverage of the activities of Ukrainian self-government bodies under occupation by a totalitarian regime. General historical methods of analysis and synthesis, comparison and generalization are used, along with content analysis and critique of periodicals as historical sources. The scientific novelty lies in analyzing a specific part of the periodical publication, focusing on the coverage of the complex of measures undertaken by Ukrainian local authorities in the field of administrative management, regulation of economic activities, social protection measures, and cultural life. This attempts, at the regional level, to reveal the true nature and functionality of the apparatus and activities of the Ukrainian authorities under occupation at its initial stage in 1941. Conclusions: Analyzing the publication "Vinnytski Visti" from September to December 1941, it is noted that the newspaper, as a periodical of local government, functionally had corresponding directions: providing the population with information about events in the world, country, and regional space; informing about the relations between the population and local authorities, introducing innovations in community life; explaining and commenting on the content of events and news, undoubtedly through the positions of the German occupation authorities and attempting to ensure their support by coordinating activities in various spheres of life, striving to ensure social consensus; despite the limitations of the occupation authorities, it popularized Ukrainian cultural heritage, called for the revival of folk traditions, and the eradication of the ethical practices imposed by the Bolshevik regime, while in the conditions of Nazi totalitarianism, it served as a mouthpiece for agitation and propaganda. The significance of the newspaper was particularly substantial in terms of informing about the renewal of the system of administrative management and fiscal policy, conducting mobilization measures, and organizing public events to arrange cultural and educational life in the community. The analysis of the newspaper as a source also shows the specificity of the powers of the local Ukrainian authorities, which, not being elected but appointed by the occupiers, had their own specifics. According to the procedure of formation, the local authorities were appointed, but in terms of powers, they corresponded institutionally to the functions of a local self-government body.

Building through the flames: Polish-Jewish architects and their networks, 1937–1945

Before 1939, Jewish architects were active members of their profession, participating in domestic and international architectural networks and contributing to the built environment of Polish cities. From the mid-1930s, however, intensifying antisemitism and far-right political forces pressured architectural networks to exclude Jews from professional unions. The start of the Second World War and the German occupation in 1939 strained professional architectural networks but led to the formation of underground workshops, cooperatives, and other groups, whose connections extended from Warsaw through the camps and ghettos of occupied Poland. This article presents the history of Jewish-Polish architects from 1937 to 1945. Demonstrating how architectural networks reacted to changing conditions of war, occupation, and genocide, it emphasizes architectural networks as sites of political engagement, ranging from prewar antisemitic attacks on Jews and their removal from the Society of Polish Architects (SARP) to underground architectural networks that hid Jews and allowed them to work. Although the fate of Jewish architects depended largely on their relationships with their professional networks, they also actively decided how to utilize those networks to resist the Nazis and to ensure their survival. This research shows that interpersonal relationships and wartime networks were consequential in determining the wartime fates of Jewish architects and also shaped the profession’s post-war structure.