Rwandan Genocide Research Articles

Perpetrators as Victims? Inclusivity and Proximity in Post-Genocide Cambodia and Rwanda

ABSTRACT In post-genocide Cambodia and Rwanda, low-level perpetrators often identify as victims of the genocidal regimes alongside those they tortured and killed. However, state and societal responses to these claims appear to have varied dramatically. In Cambodia, the government and civil society organizations seem to view former Khmer Rouge cadres’ claims to victim status as socially acceptable and politically useful, while in Rwanda, the government and civil society organizations have firmly rejected perpetrators’ efforts to claim space as victims. What accounts for these different societal responses in Cambodia and Rwanda? At present, there is ample literature on how authoritarian government actors in both contexts have shaped their nation’s post-genocide transitional justice responses to prevent future bloodshed, while simultaneously reinforcing their regimes’ sometimes tenuous political legitimacy. However, this article offers complementary insights by exploring two otherwise under-researched factors that we argue further inform these polar-opposite reactions to perpetrators’ claims to victim status: (1). post-genocide governments’ offers of inclusivity in defining who is part of each nation’s ideal post-genocide ingroup; and (2). the social proximity of perpetrators and their victims during and after the genocides. Our focus on inclusivity and social proximity related to the Cambodian and Rwandan genocide advances scholarly understandings of the various factors that shape government and social responses to perpetration in the aftermath of genocide internationally.

The Role of Language in the Media During the 1994 Rwandan Genocide

In 1994, around 800,000 people were killed in 100 days of genocide in Rwanda. The primary targets of the genocide were the minority Tutsi, but many moderate Hutus were killed as well. In order to facilitate mass participation in the genocide, the ruling elite created and promoted media tools to disseminate anti-Tutsi propaganda and convince ordinary Rwandans to take part in the killings. The media instruments used included the RTLM radio station and newspapers such as Kangura. Using excerpts from radio broadcasts, as well as scholarly works by journalists, broadcasters, and media experts, this paper explores the role of the media in the genocide, including the formation of the media outlets and the various types of language used in the media, (such as high context and low context language), in addition to explaining how this language was used to promote genocide, and making recommendations for the prevention of the use of hate media in future conflicts.

“A season in hell”: The Rwandan genocide and the ICRC's Fundamental Principles

“A season in hell”: The Rwandan genocide and the ICRC's Fundamental Principles

How Radio Affects Violent Conflict: New Evidence from Rwanda

Researchers have long debated how radio broadcasts affected the dynamics of the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, with some arguing that the radio was highly consequential, and others suggesting such effects have been overstated. This article contributes to these debates—as well as to debates regarding the role of old and new media in collective action—by examining whether and how Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (Radio RTLM) coverage was associated with two core aspects of the violence: (1) subnational onset of genocidal violence and (2) participation in genocidal violence across subnational spaces. Drawing on new data on Radio RTLM coverage, we find that areas with coverage were more likely to experience immediate onset of violence. However, our analysis of participation in the genocide—which uses more accurate measures of participation and of radio coverage than prior studies—finds no significant association between Radio RTLM coverage and subnational levels of participation. After illustrating that these results are robust to numerous model specifications, we theorize that information broadcast over the radio’s airways contributed to the creation of a critical mass that initiated genocide in localized spaces. We conclude by considering the importance of understanding the role of media in the subnational onset of violence.

Rwandan Children 30 Years Post-Genocide in Jean Hatzfeld’s Blood Papa

2024 marks the 30th commemoration of the genocide in Rwanda. For the past 30 years, the nebulous figure of the “Rwandan child” has been ubiquitous in Rwandan governmental discourse, as well as in in most Western-oriented humanitarian campaigns. This essay explores the pervasive figure of the “Rwandan child” by focusing on children born during and post-genocide to genocide survivors and perpetrators, a category of Rwandan children that is of emerging research interest. Specifically, it investigates the representation of children in Jean Hatzfeld’s Blood Papa: Rwanda’s New Generation, originally published in French in 2015, which is the most widely available collection of testimonials by children of survivors and perpetrators of the 1994 genocide. This analysis focuses on these youth’s reflections on ethnic unity, historical memory, reconciliation and futurity – key concepts undergirding Rwanda’s national post-genocidal discourse of kwibuka twiyubaka, roughly translated as “Let’s commemorate while we grow.” I argue that these youth adults’ reflections on these seminal issues both put into question Rwandan national discourse and also reveal thought-provoking insights on conditions in Rwanda post-genocide, just as another generation of Rwandan children rises to the fore.

Adaptive Gaussian Markov random fields for child mortality estimation.

The under-5 mortality rate (U5MR), a critical health indicator, is typically estimated from household surveys in lower and middle income countries. Spatio-temporal disaggregation of household survey data can lead to highly variable estimates of U5MR, necessitating the usage of smoothing models which borrow information across space and time. The assumptions of common smoothing models may be unrealistic when certain time periods or regions are expected to have shocks in mortality relative to their neighbors, which can lead to oversmoothing of U5MR estimates. In this paper, we develop a spatial and temporal smoothing approach based on Gaussian Markov random field models which incorporate knowledge of these expected shocks in mortality. We demonstrate the potential for these models to improve upon alternatives not incorporating knowledge of expected shocks in a simulation study. We apply these models to estimate U5MR in Rwanda at the national level from 1985 to 2019, a time period which includes the Rwandan civil war and genocide.

Assessing the well-being of partners of people found guilty of perpetrating genocide in Rwanda.

This article draws upon 89 in-person surveys with Rwandan women (ages 26-75) whose partners were incarcerated for genocide and examines how these women explain participation in the violence. We first engage in exploratory factor analysis of reasons cited for perpetrating genocide, which reveals (1) a factor comprised of internal reasons for participation, including greed and hatred; (2) a factor of external reasons, such as peer pressure or coercion, and (3) a factor driven by alcohol use. Next, we analyze how these factors are associated with the women's psychosocial wellbeing as measured by the World Health Organization's Self-Reporting Questionnaire. This quantitative analysis finds that, net of relevant control variables, accounts of participation in genocide that emphasize external reasons for participation are associated with better psychosocial wellbeing, while accounts of participation that emphasize internal reasons are associated with worse psychosocial wellbeing. We conclude by addressing the link between explanations for actions and wellbeing.

Considering Person-First Language in Genocide Studies

Numerous researchers, policymakers, and activists have advocated for the use of person-first language when referring to people who engaged in crime or violence. Such advocacy is rooted in firm evidence that person-first language (e.g. a person who committed a felony rather than a felon) is associated with lower rates of recidivism, more robust reintegration into communities, and less fear amongst members of the public. In this article, we extend this important discussion to genocide studies. Specifically, we suggest that genocide scholars — as well as policymakers, reporters, and other professionals — should consider the power tied to labelling people by their actions, as well as the impacts of these labels. To do so, we rely upon interviews with 165 people who were incarcerated for genocide in Rwanda, whom we interviewed both during their incarceration and upon their release. Given that the movement toward person-first language hinges on how people want to be labelled, we emphasize how those who committed genocide speak about themselves. Ultimately, we encourage consideration of person-first language following violence, which would involve departing from terms like perpetrator and genocidaire. We simultaneously acknowledge the discomfort in this discussion and underscore that person-first language does not remove responsibility for heinous actions. Rather, scrutinizing common terminology is part of our ethical duty to reflect upon the impact of our words.

Organized violence 1989–2023, and the prevalence of organized crime groups

This article examines trends in organized violence based on new data from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP). In 2023, fatalities from organized violence decreased for the first time since the rapid increase observed in 2020, dropping from 310,000 in 2022 to 154,000 in 2023. Despite this decline, these figures represent some of the highest fatality rates recorded since the Rwandan genocide in 1994, surpassed only by those of 2022 and 2021. The decrease was primarily attributed to the end of the conflict in Ethiopia’s Tigray region, which accounted for about 60% of battle-related deaths in both 2022 and 2021. Despite this positive development, the number of active state-based armed conflicts increased by three in 2023, reaching the highest level ever recorded by the UCDP, totaling 59. Non-state conflicts and one-sided violence decreased in 2023 when compared to 2022, evident in both the reduction of the active conflicts/actors and the decrease in fatalities attributed to these forms of violence. However, despite this overall decrease, fatalities resulting from non-state conflicts remained at historically high levels in 2023. Analysis of non-state conflict data spanning the past decade reveals that it comprises the ten most violent years on record. Organized crime groups have predominantly fueled this escalation. Unlike rebel groups, organized crime groups typically lack political goals and are primarily motivated by economic gain. Conflicts between these groups tend to intensify around drug smuggling routes and in urban areas, driven by shifts in alliances and leadership dynamics among the actors.

Assessing the inaction of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) in Myanmar and Gaza Amidst Atrocity Crimes

The global community's failure to prevent severe human rights violations, such as the Rwanda Genocide and Yugoslavian atrocities, led to the development of the "Responsibility to Protect" (R2P) doctrine, adopted by the UN in 2005. R2P aims to shield populations from genocide, ethnic cleansing, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. Despite its promise, R2P's implementation is hindered by geopolitical interests and power dynamics. To address ongoing atrocities, it is essential to strengthen international accountability mechanisms and prioritize civilian protection, ensuring such violations are neither tolerated nor inevitable.

Population Declines and Land Use Management in Rwanda

Rwanda, like several other sub‑Saharan African (SSA) countries, experienced a population boom following the Tutsi genocide of 1994. However, the growing population exacerbated the impact of human activities, such as deforestation, on the environment. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of population decline on land use management, focussing particularly on the issues faced by the inhabitants of Rwanda’s Jali and Kigali mountains. Population decline was recognised as the main contributing factor to land use management, so the government policy of relocating people from the Jali and Kigali mountains, as well as the literature, identified many issues, such as settlement in high‑risk locations, areas of degradation and general environmental issues, which have been analysed in this paper. Due to lack of sufficient research on the topic, this study uses quantitative questionnaires involving 1,000 households. Moreover, a mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative) approach has been employed for a better understanding of phonemes and to help governments develop better environmental policies in the future. It also provides some suggestions for future research on the issues and proposes recommendations for interventions.

Reflecting on Determinant Factors of Violence in Light of the Governments' Access to Resources, Vested Political Interests and Ethno-religious Identities in the Rwandan Genocide After 25 Years

The research sought to know the primary determinant factors of violence in light of the governments' access to resources and vested political interests on the one hand and ethno-religious identities on the other in the context of the Rwandan Genocide. The Instrumentalism Theory of Ethnicity guided the research. The research used a qualitative research design within the phenomenological approach. A non-probability snowball sampling technique was used. The data collection method was interviews; hence, the data collection instruments were interview guides. A total of ten participants from the Republic of Rwanda participated in the interviews. Thematic data analysis was used to arrive at the research result. The research findings pointed to the determinant factors of violence linked to colonial powers, governments and ethnoreligious identities. The political interests and the resource issues of the governments are stronger determinants of violence than the ethnoreligious identities. This means that religion, ethnicity, and other cultural grievances remained secondary or instrumental factors that the external and internal governments utilised in the history of Rwanda. In addition, the research found that religion and ethnicity are important agents in exacerbating conflict and building peace and social transformation in the aftermath of conflicts. They bring the warring parties into reconciliation, healing, and enhancing peace. Therefore, the research findings concluded that the lack of natural resources, Rwanda being a land-locked country, and overpopulation of the geographical space exposed the people of Rwanda to virtual poverty. This socio-economic reality exacerbated the government's desperate search for access to meagre resources by external and internal political and ethnic authorities. Hence, the primary cause of the genocide was the desperate search for resources and political manoeuvres to secure them by holding on to power at any cost. The article recommends that all the stakeholders of Rwanda's peace and development must stand shoulder to shoulder to reduce poverty and create good governance.

Contentious vulnerability: The case of Rwandan genocide memorials

Contentious vulnerability: The case of Rwandan genocide memorials

Narrating Violence and Its Attendant to Trauma in Immaculée Ilibagiza’s <i>Left to Tell</i>

The Rwanda genocide has spawned a great deal of new literary works that draw inspiration from its experience. Specifically, over the last three decades, violence and trauma are vital contributing thematic focuses in Rwandan post genocide literary works. This study was therefore designed to examine the representations of the experiences of the victims of the genocide in order to establish how violence induces trauma in the characters. Postcolonial theory and trauma were adopted as the framework basically to examine the challenges of violence perpetuated by the state against her citizens, as well as interrogate the traumatic state of the characters, while interpretive design was used for critical analysis of the text. Immaculée Ilibagiza’s <i>Left to Tell</i> inscribes different traumatic situations such as bereavement, grief, psychological dislocation, and physical threat to life, as influenced by interpersonal and collective violence to describe her experiences and that of other victims as they journey in isolation and silence as the perpetrators of the genocide lurk around their protector’s residence. The writer exposes the dangers of socio-political violence. This prose narrative helps to unburden the writer’s pains while helping others to have a grasp of the challenges Rwandans faced during the genocide. This study establishes the dangers of bad governance, the harsh realities of war and the intertwined relationship between violence and trauma.

Understanding the structure of autobiographical memories: A study of trauma memories from the 1994 Rwandan genocide.

How do we remember traumatic events, and are these memories different in individuals who experience post-traumatic stress? Some evidence suggests that traumatic events are mnemonically enhanced, or include more episodic detail, relative to other types of memories. Simultaneously, individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have more non-episodic details in all of their memories, a pattern hypothesized to result from impairment in executive function. Here, we explore these questions in a unique population that experienced severely traumatic events more than 20 years ago - individuals who lived through the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Participants recalled events from the genocide, negative events unrelated to the genocide, neutral events, and positive events. We used the Autobiographical Interview method to label memory details as episodic or non-episodic. We found that memories from the genocide showed robust mnemonic enhancement, with more episodic than non-episodic details, and contained more details overall than any other memory type. This pattern was not impacted by post-traumatic stress. Overall, this study provides evidence that traumatic events create vivid long-lasting episodic memories, in this case even more than 20 years later.

The Crime of Genocide Considering International Humanitarian Law

Obtaining justice for individuals from different groups in the international community is a fundamental human right. Because of this, the United Nations has consistently recognized genocide as an international crime that is denied by everyone and for which those who commit it should be held accountable. Consequently, genocide falls under the purview of international criminal courts; however, its definition, elements of criminal liability, distinction from other international crimes, and standards used by the court to classify genocide crimes must all be defined. Understanding the elements of the crime is essential. These crimes damage humanity and jeopardize global peace and security, which makes it necessary to establish international courts with the authority to prosecute the perpetrators of these crimes. Genocide is not something that typically happens overnight or without warning. It is, in fact, a deliberate strategy. Genocide has a considerable impact on future generations. It has a detrimental effect on the safety and security of the population in neighboring areas because its consequences extend beyond the borders of the devastated country. For instance, the genocide in Rwanda is still being felt today in many ways, both inside the nation and among its neighbors, particularly in the Democratic Republic of the Congo's eastern territories.

Geospatial evaluation of radiologic access in Rwanda

BackgroundRwanda has aimed to rebuild its health care system since the Rwandan genocide against the Tutsis in 1994, though one of the challenges has been a scarcity of radiologic resources.ObjectiveTo assess the location and accessibility of radiologic facilities in Rwanda using geospatial mapping and population-based data.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted in May 2023 using location and radiologic modality data provided by the Department of Radiology at the University Teaching Hospital of Kigali and the WorldPop database, a publicly available database providing open-access geospatial population data. Radiologic equipment included magnetic resonance (MR), computed tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET), radiotherapy, X-ray, mammography, and fluoroscopy machines. Geospatial analysis was performed using ArcGIS Pro 2.8.6 software.ResultsFifty-six radiologic facilities were identified, including 5 MR, 7 CT, 1 radiotherapy, 52 X-ray, 5 mammography, 5 fluoroscopy, and 0 PET machines. There were 0.4 MR, 0.5 CT, 0 PET, 0.1 radiotherapy, 3.9 X-ray, 0.4 mammography, and 0.4 fluoroscopy units per 1 million people.ConclusionRwanda is one of the countries with the lowest radiologic access in East Africa; however, there is evidence of progress, particularly in more advanced diagnostic imaging techniques such as computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging.Critical relevance statementThis study provides a 10-year update on current radiologic resources and access in Rwanda, identifying areas of progress and ongoing scarcity, serving as a guide for future direction of growth.Key points• As Rwanda works on rebuilding its health care system, this study provides an assessment of the current radiologic resources within the country.• There is less than one radiologic unit for every million of the Rwandan population for every imaging modality other than X-ray.• While radiologic access in Rwanda lags behind that of its neighbors, there has been growth focused on advanced imaging modalities and the training of human resources.Graphical

Aplikovaný výzkum fenoménu dehumanizace ve Rwandě

The study discusses the applied research conducted by the author in Rwanda. The aim was to confirm or refute the basic thesis of the key relevance of situational factors for the construction of dehumanization and the initiation of mass violence in Rwandan society in general. The respondents in the field research were perpetrators and victims of the 1994 Rwandan genocide. Semi-structured interview was chosen as the qualitative research method.

The shadow of Somalia is not the reason for the international neglect in the 1994 Rwandan genocide

The shadow of Somalia is not the reason for the international neglect in the 1994 Rwandan genocide

The Shadow of Somalia or Mogadishu Syndrome being the Popular Reason for the International Neglect in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide Is Inaccurate

100-day Rwandan killings in 1994 took approximately 800,000 lives and displaced about 2 million people. The United States and the International Community have been blamed for this 'catastrophic snub', and stakeholders in International Relations have argued that the reason behind this is 'the shadow of Somalia' or 'Mogadishu syndrome' during which 18 US soldiers were killed, and scores injured in a UN-peace keeping exercise in Mogadishu. I critically analyze these two events to indicate that the events in Somalia have very little influence on the international community's neglect of Rwanda. It is also paramount to note that external influences from the same international community played crucial roles in the genocide, making it even clearer why such an excuse will stand. This review is, therefore, aimed at critically analyzing these separate events in the two African nations to indicate that the events in Somalia had very little influence on the decision of the international community to totally neglect Rwanda, especially if the UNISOM II operations had learnt from UNITAF and operated differently from the way it did; also putting into consideration, the UN, Belgium, France and the United States who played crucial roles in letting the genocide happen.