Genital Variation Research Articles

A Comparative Corpus-Based Study of Genitive Variation in Written Native and Non-Native Speakers’ Narratives

A Comparative Corpus-Based Study of Genitive Variation in Written Native and Non-Native Speakers’ Narratives

Expanding the scope of grammatical variation: towards a comprehensive account of genitive variation across registers

Most studies of genitive variation in English have considered only the choice of two variants ('s versus of), based on analysis of only tokens that are judged to be interchangeable. We argue in the present article that research on genitive variation can be usefully extended in both respects: including premodifying nouns as a third variant; and attempting to account for all tokens of the genitive. In addition, we extend the scope of analysis to explore the possibility of contextual constraints having different importance in different registers.First, we carry out a text-linguistic analysis comparing the rates of genitive variants in texts from three registers (conversation, newspaper reports, academic articles), showing that genitives overall are much more frequent in written registers, with the premodifying noun variant being especially frequent. Then, a variationist analysis is undertaken to account for the choice of genitive variant in particular contexts and registers. A total of 3,425 genitive tokens were coded for ten contextual characteristics (e.g. length of the Modifying NP, semantic category of the Modifying noun and the Head noun, final sibilancy of the Modifying noun). Statistical analyses with random forests and conditional inference trees are triangulated, showing how contextual factors interact in predicting the use of each genitive variant – and how patterns of variation differ across registers.

The evolution of female-biased genital diversity in bedbugs (Cimicidae).

Rapid genitalia evolution is believed to be mainly driven by sexual selection. Recently, noncopulatory genital functions have been suggested to exert stronger selection pressure on female genitalia than copulatory functions. In bedbugs (Cimicidae), the impact of the copulatory function can be isolated from the noncopulatory impact. Unlike in other taxa, female copulatory organs have no function in egg-laying or waste-product expulsion. Males perform traumatic mating by piercing the female integument, thereby imposing antagonistic selection on females and suspending selection to morphologically match female genitalia. We found the location of the copulatory organ evolved rapidly, changing twice between dorsal and ventral sides, and several times along the anteroposterior and the left-right axes. Male genital length and shape varied much less, did not appear to follow the positional changes seen in females, and showed no evidence for coevolution. Female genitalia position evolved 1.5 times faster than male genital length and shape and showed little neutral or geographic signals. Instead, we propose that nonmorphological male traits, such as mating behavior, may drive female genitalia morphology in this taxon. Models of genitalia evolution may benefit from considering morphological genital responses to nonmorphological stimuli, such as male mating behavior or copulatory position.

Health professionals’ and beauty therapists’ perspectives on female genital cosmetic surgery: an interview study

BackgroundFemale genital cosmetic surgery (FGCS) changes the structure and appearance of healthy external genitalia. We aimed to identify discourses that help explain and rationalise FGCS and to derive from them possibilities for informing clinical education.MethodsWe interviewed 16 health professionals and 5 non-health professionals who deal with women’s bodies using a study-specific semi-structured interview guide. We analysed transcripts using a three-step iterative process: identifying themes relevant to indications for FGCS, identifying the discourses within which they were positioned, and categorising and theorising discourses.ResultsWe identified discourses that we categorised within four themes: Diversity and the Normal Vulva (diversity was both acknowledged and rejected); Indications for FGCS (Functional, Psychological, Appearance); Ethical Perspectives; and Reasons Women Seek FGCS (Pubic Depilation, Media Representation, Pornography, Advertising Regulations, Social Pressure, Genital Unfamiliarity).ConclusionsVulvar aesthetics constitute a social construct to which medical practice and opinion contribute and by which they are influenced; education and reform need to occur on all fronts. Resources that not only establish genital diversity but also challenge limited vulvar aesthetics could be developed in consultation with women, healthcare practitioners, mental health specialists, and others with knowledge of social constructs of women’s bodies.

Intersex people’s experiences of medical interventions, sex education, and physical intimacy

ABSTRACT The study reported in this paper explores the experiences of 95 people with intersex variations constituting an international English-speaking sample who completed a mixed methods survey comprises questions designed by the authors to explore 1) genital variations and medical interventions (and pressures to undertake them), 2) experiences with sex education, and 3) experience of physical intimacy, including use of safer sex devices and sexually transmitted infections. Surgeries on minors were common and typically not consensual, often resulting in the need for revisions. Pressures for surgeries most commonly were made by doctors. Experiences of sex education often failed to be inclusive of intersex bodies, with information about menstruation and hygiene rarely provided, and many participants having to learn on their own. Participants had a diversity of experiences of physical intimacy beyond penetration. For those who had experienced penetration, vaginal intercourse was enjoyable for some, but many found it painful. Conversely, anal intercourse was enjoyed by many and rarely found to be painful. The paper concludes by highlighting the importance of an intersex-specific approach to sexual health for this population.

Neurological Considerations for "Nerve-Sparing" Cosmetic Genital Surgeries Performed on Children with XX Chromosomes Diagnosed with 21-Hydroxylase Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and Clitoromegaly.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is most often caused by adrenal deficiency of 21-hydroxylase (21-OH). The resulting increase in androgens can cause clitoromegaly in fetuses with XX chromosomes. 21-OH CAH is the most common reason for cosmetic clitoroplasty in childhood. "Nerve-sparing" (NS) clitoral reduction surgeries are described as offering optimal cosmesis, while sparing sensation and nerve function. The methods used to demonstrate NS surgery efficacy, however, such as electromyography and optical coherence tomography, do not evaluate the small-fiber axons that comprise the majority of axons in the clitoris and that transduce sexual pleasure. Although some data show sparing of a portion of the main dorsal nerve trunk of the clitoris, the overall neurobiological consequences of elective clitoral reductions have received little attention. NS surgeries remove dorsal nerve branches that transduce sexual sensation, as well as the corpora cavernosa and cavernous nerve, which provide clitoral autonomic function. While most outcome studies focus on surgeons' perceptions of cosmetic results, studies that assess small-fiber function indicate significant nervous system and sexual impairment. Studies assessing children's clitoral function after surgery with vibrational testing have been ethically condemned. Decades of advocacy against medically unnecessary childhood genital surgeries have highlighted the subsequent physical and psychological harm. Recent studies with CAH patients indicate gender diversity and a lower prevalence of female gender identification than is often cited to justify feminizing surgery. The most effective and ethical NS technique for CAH may be acceptance of gender, sexual, and genital diversity as the infant develops into childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

Quality of Life and Psychosocial Well-Being among Intersex-Identifying Individuals in Puerto Rico: An Exploratory Study.

Intersex is an umbrella term used to describe the diversity or differences in the characteristics of physical sexual development. Approximately 1.7% of the population are born intersex, and 1 in every 2000 babies at birth presents genital variation. Unfortunately, there is a lack of research on the health of intersex-identifying persons in Latin America. This study aimed to document experiences of discrimination and violence among self-identifying intersex individuals in Puerto Rico and to determine if there is a significant difference in the quality of life, psychological well-being, and social well-being between intersex-identifying and endosex individuals. This was a quantitative method pilot study with a cross-sectional approach and exploratory comparative group design. An online survey was used, where a total of 12 self-identifying intersex adult participants were recruited, and 126 endosex adult participants served as a comparative group. The findings show that 83% of the participants reported experiences of discrimination and different types of violence due to their intersexuality. There was a significant difference between the intersex-identifying and endosex groups in psychological well-being, including in three of its dimensions (positives relations, autonomy, and environmental mastery). However, there were no significant differences between the groups in quality of life or social well-being. The findings of this study provide a preliminary understanding of the health disparities of intersex-identifying individuals in Puerto Rico and suggest the need for more profound research, especially the inclusion of other Caribbean and Hispanic countries. The findings also preliminarily imply the need for local and global interventions to reduce physical and mental health disparities and to improve health, quality of life, and well-being among intersex-identifying individuals.

Female urogenital reconstruction in a case of sexual development disorder (46, XY) with cloacal exstrophy associated with diphallia

Disorders (or differences) of Sex Development (DSD) comprise a state of genetic, gonadal and genital variation. Among the conditions associated with DSD is cloacal exstrophy, a rare congenital malformation part of the exstrophy-epispadias malformation complex. Thus, the case of a patient with rare involvement of DSD 46, XY cloacal exstrophy associated with diphallia who underwent surgical treatment for female urogenital reconstruction is reported. The patient's electronic medical record was reviewed after presenting and accepting the Informed Consent. Sociodemographic and clinical-epidemiological variables and pre- and postoperative data were analyzed. The patient was 20 years old, white and raised considering to be female. She was born with cloacal exstrophy, with severe morphological changes in the external genitalia, and submitted to terminal ileostomy, cystoplasty, and rudimentary large bowel colectomy during the neonatal period. At 13 years of age, the patient reported discomfort with the appearance of her external genitalia and the need for constant use of diapers due to urinary incontinence. The patient underwent reconstruction of the urinary and genital tracts during adolescence besides a genitoplasty followed by regular vaginal dilation. At age 17, she reported feeling satisfied with the surgical result, denied discomfort with the current aspect of her genitalia and mentioned identifying herself with the female and male genders, with increased adherence to typically female behaviors. A supposedly favorable outcome in the late adolescence of a DSD 46, XY cloacal exstrophy subject who underwent surgical adaptation for sexual definition after a multidisciplinary approach was reported. The patient revealed a non-binary gender identity, absence of gender dysphoria, satisfaction with her own body and androphilic sexual orientation.

Diagnosis of DSD in Children-Development of New Tools for a Structured Diagnostic and Information Management Program within the Empower-DSD Study.

Background: Current recommendations define a structured diagnostic process, transparent information, and psychosocial support by a specialized, multi-professional team as central in the care for children and adolescents with genital variations and a suspected difference of sex development (DSD). The active involvement of the child and their parents in shared decision-making should result in an individualized care plan. So far, this process has not been standardized. Methods: Within the Empower-DSD study, a team of professionals and representatives of patient advocacy groups developed a new diagnostic and information management program based on current recommendations and existing patient information. Results: The information management defines and standardizes generic care elements for the first weeks after a suspected DSD diagnosis. Three different tools were developed: a guideline for the specialized multiprofessional team, a personal health record and information kit for the child with DSD and their family, and a booklet for medical staff not specialized in DSD. Conclusions: The new information management offers guidance for patients and professionals during the first weeks after a DSD diagnosis is suspected. The developed tools’ evaluation will provide further insight into the diagnostic and information-sharing process as well as into all of the involved stakeholders’ needs.

Examining the shape and size of female and male genitalia in snakes using three-dimensional geometric morphometrics

Abstract Quantification of genital variation in males and females can inform our understanding of likely copulatory interactions and evolution of genital diversity. However, no studies have quantified genital shape variation within a single snake species or examined the shape and size of both the vaginal pouch and hemipenes. Here, we examine the shape and size of the genitalia of female and male diamondback water snakes, Nerodia rhombifer, using a three-dimensional automated landmark geometric morphometric approach on models of the lumen of the vaginal pouch and inflated hemipenes, applying these techniques for the first time to the genital shape of vertebrates. Vaginal pouch shape is significantly associated with body size and reproductive status. As females grow larger and become reproductive, the vaginal pouch enlarges, widens and becomes more bifurcated. In reproductive males, the shape of the hemipenes is also significantly associated with body size. As males grow larger, the hemipenes enlarge and widen; their bifurcation becomes more defined and the spines at the base become more prominent. Vaginal pouch and hemipenial centroid size are isometric with respect to body length. The centroid sizes of the hemipenes and vaginal pouch are not significantly different from one another, hence the genitalia match in size. Reproductive females and males covary in the degree of bifurcation and size of their genitalia. We demonstrate the utility of three-dimensional analysis in studies of the shape of soft tissues and advocate its use in future studies of genitalia.

Female Genital Variation Far Exceeds that of Male Genitalia: A Review of Comparative Anatomy of Clitoris and the Female Lower Reproductive Tract in Theria.

SynopsisA review of the literature on the anatomy of the lower female genital tract in therian mammals reveals, contrary to the general perception, a large amount of inter-specific variation. Variation in females is anatomically more radical than that in the male genitalia. It includes the absence of whole anatomical units, like the cervix in many Xenarthra, or the absence of the urogenital sinus (UGS), as well as the complete spatial separation of the external clitoral parts from the genital canal (either vagina or UGS). A preliminary phylogenetic analysis shows two patterns. Some morphs are unique to early branching clades, like the absence of the cervix, while others arose multiple times independently, like the flattening out or loss of the UGS, or the extreme elongation of the clitoris. Based on available information, the ancestral eutherian configuration of the external female genitalia included a cervix, a single vaginal segment, a tubular UGS, and an unperforated clitoris close to the entrance of the genital canal. The evidence for either bilobed or unitary glandes clitorides is ambivalent. Despite the wealth of information available, many gaps in knowledge remain and will require a community-wide effort to come to a more robust model of female genital evolutionary patterns.

Evolution of genes involved in the unusual genitals of the bear macaque, Macaca arctoides.

Genital divergence is thought to contribute to reproductive barriers by establishing a “lock‐and‐key" mechanism for reproductive compatibility. One such example, Macaca arctoides, the bear macaque, has compensatory changes in both male and female genital morphology as compared to close relatives. M. arctoides also has a complex evolutionary history, having extensive introgression between the fascicularis and sinica macaque species groups. Here, phylogenetic relationships were analyzed via whole‐genome sequences from five species, including M. arctoides, and two species each from the putative parental species groups. This analysis revealed ~3x more genomic regions supported placement in the sinica species group as compared to the fascicularis species group. Additionally, introgression analysis of the M. arctoides genome revealed it is a mosaic of recent polymorphisms shared with both species groups. To examine the evolution of their unique genital morphology further, the prevalence of candidate genes involved in genital morphology was compared against genome‐wide outliers in various population genetic metrics of diversity, divergence, introgression, and selection, while accounting for background variation in recombination rate. This analysis identified 67 outlier genes, including several genes that influence baculum morphology in mice, which were of interest since the bear macaque has the longest primate baculum. The mean of four of the seven population genetic metrics was statistically different in the candidate genes as compared to the rest of the genome, suggesting that genes involved in genital morphology have increased divergence and decreased diversity beyond expectations. These results highlight specific genes that may have played a role in shaping the unique genital morphology in the bear macaque.

New context, new content-Rethinking genital anatomy in textbooks.

It has been widely claimed that reductions in allocated teaching time and the widespread implementation of short‐cut teaching methodologies have led to a shortfall in anatomy knowledge among graduating doctors. This decline in knowledge is evident in the failure of anatomy content to prepare graduates for contemporary clinical practice. The implications for postgraduate surgical training are addressed in the numerous extracurricular anatomy courses available to surgical candidates. This paper focuses on genital diversity and its relevance to non‐surgical graduates, thus highlighting another potential impact of this knowledge shortfall on frontline clinic consultations. As the gender revolution and female genital cosmetic surgery industry flourish, nothing in contemporary anatomy textbooks addresses issues of diversification of female genitalia nor gives medical graduates a realistic view of what is normal regarding female genital appearance.

Recent Grammatical Change in Postcolonial Englishes: A Real-time Study of Genitive Variation in Caribbean and Indian News Writing

This paper presents a diachronic analysis of genitive variation in five varieties of English. Based on a set of matching newspaper corpora from the 1960s and the early 2000s from the Bahamas, Jamaica, India, Great Britain, and the U.S., we look into variation and change in the underlying grammar of the genitive alternation, as defined by patterns of constraints affecting the variable. We employ random forests and Multifactorial Prediction and Deviation Analysis to analyze a richly annotated set of over 22,000 genitive tokens. Our analysis corroborates findings with regard to postcolonial Englishes, particularly in the Caribbean, that suggest that these varieties are partaking in American-led global trends in grammar toward, e.g., densification, without actually approximating American norms. We also notice that production-related constraints on genitive variation, such as syntactic weight or givenness, have increased their effects. While metropolitan and postcolonial Englishes share a core grammar of genitive variation, there is noticeable variation particularly with regard to semantic and socioculturally determined predictors such as text type. Overall, we see a widening gap between metropolitan and postcolonial Englishes. The case of Bahamian English is especially interesting as it appears fairly American-oriented during colonial times but has aligned with other postcolonial Englishes since independence.

Reproductive Character Displacement in Genital Morphology in Ohomopterus Ground Beetles.

AbstractGenital morphology reveals rapid diversification among species, and species-specific divergence in genital morphology may result in reproductive isolation and promote speciation. Natural selection against maladaptive hybridization may cause species-specific genital divergence. In this context, divergence in mating traits is expected to be greater between sympatric populations than between allopatric populations in a pair of species, known as reproductive character displacement (RCD). However, there are few examples of RCD in the genital morphology of closely related species. Additionally, processes leading to RCD have rarely been inferred. In this study, we examined RCD and its underlying mechanisms by focusing on species-specific genital morphologies of closely related Ohomopterus ground beetle species. A morphological analysis showed patterns of RCD in species-specific genital parts in both sexes. Interspecific hybridization was confirmed by a mate choice experiment and by a population genetic analysis indicating extensive interspecific gene flow, suggesting that reinforcement is the most plausible process underlying the observed RCD. We found variation in the degree of displacement in contact zones, which may correspond with the ongoing process of genital evolution and speciation. Our results provide support for the lock-and-key hypothesis of genital evolution in closely related Ohomopterus species.

Hypospadias surgery: understanding parental emotions, decisions and regrets.

This paper builds an argument about genital surgery in the context of medical treatment of children and young people with variations in sex characteristics. First, I set out what is known from existing research including psychological research, surgical follow-up studies and parental regret studies. Second, I present an analysis of surgeons' talk about children, young people and parents in relation to genital surgery. This paper focuses most specifically on hypospadias surgery, but the argumentation is relevant for other kinds of genital surgery carried out in the context of genital variations. The questions guiding this paper are: what research evidence supports hypospadias surgery and what research evidence brings this surgery into question? How might a new interpretation of the evidence, in light of psychosocial research and human rights concerns, contribute to a new perspective on elective genital surgery on minors with variations in sex characteristics? I draw out implications for clinicians supporting parents to decide whether a surgical pathway is the best option for their child.

Discovery of Mesyatsia karakorum (Šámal, 1935) (Plecoptera: Taeniopterygidae) in Yunnan Province of China

Mesyatsia karakorum (Šámal, 1935) is recorded from Yunnan Province of southwestern China for the first time. Supplementary re-descriptions and photos of the species are presented based on males, females and exuviae. Data on habitat preference, species co-existing, behaviour, collecting methods and intraspecific genitalic variation of M. karakorum are provided.

Anatomy Textbooks ‐ Mind the Gap

Introduction and objective The aim of this study was to determine if and how diversity and variation are represented in iconic, authoritative anatomy texts used to prepare students for contemporary clinical practice.The contemporary issue of labiaplasty, a new and increasingly commonly performed cosmetic surgery procedure, provided a focal point for this study. The anatomical criteria behind this surgery are problematic because of confusion between “normal labia” and “idealised labia”.1 Valid and accurate information about normal labial diversity is critical to referring practitioners and the gynaecologists and plastic surgeons performing these procedures. Materials and method A sample of historic, multiple edition and popular contemporary textbooks as well as the peer-reviewed literature were examined for a specific set of features to determine similarities and differences in descriptions and depictions of the labia (including information about normal structural variation and function). Results 39 of 41 editions of Gray's Anatomy, 4 of 8 editions of Buchanan's Manual of Anatomy and contemporary editions of Moore's Clinical Anatomy, Last's Anatomy and Gray's Anatomy for Students, together with over 100 peer reviewed journal articles were examined. Despite expectations that the anatomy textbooks used in medical training would be authoritative and supportive of contemporary clinical practice, they covered basic anatomy of the vulva only, and information on function, normal diversity and changes with sexual activity, childbirth and aging is not included. They do not reflect recent population data and have remained rigid and unresponsive to the concurrent proliferation of social polemics.2 Conclusion Contemporary anatomy courses using popular contemporary anatomy texts may be graduating doctors with a knowledge gap about normal genital diversity. This gap would have been less problematic in the pre-labiaplasty era but now leaves the practitioners insufficiently informed about normal female genital anatomy to competently assess and advise the increasing number of women and girls requesting labiaplasty.3 Anatomical texts and resources need to recognise normal variation and represent new evidence base so that anatomy courses support our clinical colleagues and are not merely hurdles for students to pass. References Clerico, C., Lari, A., Mojallal, A., & Boucher, F. (2017). “Anatomy and aesthetics of the labia minora: the ideal vulva?” Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 41(3), 714-719. Hayes, J. A., & Temple-Smith, M. J. (2020). “What is the anatomical basis of labiaplasty? A review of normative datasets for female genital anatomy.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajo.13298 Simonis, M., Manocha, R., & Ong, J. J. (2016). “Female genital cosmetic surgery: a cross-sectional survey exploring knowledge, attitude and practice of general practitioners.” BMJ open, 6(9).

Interspecific introgression reveals a role of male genital morphology during the evolution of reproductive isolation in Drosophila.

Rapid divergence in genital structures among nascent species has been posited to be an early‐evolving cause of reproductive isolation, although evidence supporting this idea as a widespread phenomenon remains mixed. Using a collection of interspecific introgression lines between two Drosophila species that diverged approximately 240,000 years ago, we tested the hypothesis that even modest divergence in genital morphology can result in substantial fitness losses. We studied the reproductive consequences of variation in the male epandrial posterior lobes between Drosophila mauritiana and Drosophila sechellia and found that divergence in posterior lobe morphology has significant fitness costs on several prefertilization and postcopulatory reproductive measures. Males with divergent posterior lobe morphology also significantly reduced the life span of their mates. Interestingly, one of the consequences of genital divergence was decreased oviposition and fertilization, which suggests that a sensory bias for posterior lobe morphology could exist in females, and thus, posterior lobe morphology may be the target of cryptic female choice in these species. Our results provide evidence that divergence in genitalia can in fact give rise to substantial reproductive isolation early during species divergence, and they also reveal novel reproductive functions of the external male genitalia in Drosophila.

Rapid evolution and plasticity of genitalia.

Genital morphology exhibits tremendous variation and is intimately linked with fitness. Sexual selection, nonmating natural selection and neutral forces have been explored as potential drivers of genital divergence. Though less explored, genitalia may also be plastic in response to the developmental environment. In poeciliid fishes, the length of the male intromittent organ, the gonopodium, may be driven by sexual selection if longer gonopodia attract females or aid in forced copulation attempts or by nonmating natural selection if shorter gonopodia allow predator evasion. The rearing environment may also affect gonopodium development. Using an experimental introduction of Trinidadian guppies into four replicate streams with reduced predation risk, we tested whether this new environment caused the evolution of genitalia. We measured gonopodium length after rearing the source and introduced populations for two generations in the laboratory to remove maternal and other environmental effects. We split full-sibling brothers into different rearing treatments to additionally test for developmental plasticity of gonopodia in response to predator cues and food levels as well as the evolution of plasticity. The introduced populations had shorter gonopodia after accounting for body size, demonstrating rapid genital evolution in 2-3years (8-12 generations). Brothers reared on low food levels had longer gonopodia relative to body size than those on high food, reflecting maintenance of gonopodium length despite a reduction in body size. In contrast, gonopodium length was not significantly different in response to the presence or absence of predator cues. Because the plastic response to low food was maintained between the source and introduced populations, there was no evidence that plasticity evolved. This study demonstrates the importance of both evolution and developmental plasticity in explaining genital variation.