Genipap Fruit Research Articles

Influence of extraction methods on phenolic compounds from pulp and peel of genipap (Genipa americana L.) fruit

Brazil has a great variety of fruits which are rich in bioactive compounds, such as the genipap fruit. Both the peel and the pulp of genipap have beneficial components for health, making the study of this fruit important for the proper use of its functionalities. The objective of this work was the extraction of bioactive compounds from the peel and pulp of genipap by different techniques. Extraction processes were carried out using different devices (orbital incubator shaker, ultrasonic bath, and ultrasonic probe) and at different temperatures (40, 60, 70, 80 and 90 °C). The best process for extracting phenolic compounds from the pulp of genipap fruit was with the ultrasonic probe at 40 °C, which indicated the efficiency of applying the sound waves directly to the sample. Regarding the peel, the best method for extracting phenolic compounds was using the orbital incubator shaker at 80°C.

Physicochemical Characterization, Stability and Cytotoxicity of a Blue Dye Obtained from Genipap Fruit (Genipa americana L.).

SUMMARYResearch backgroundThe current commercial scenario indicates an increase in the demand for natural dyes. Compared to synthetic dyes, natural ones have the advantage of being sustainable, making them of great interest for the food and cosmetic industries. The development of new natural dyes is necessary, as well as the carrying out of complementary research regarding the existing ones.Experimental approachThe present study aims to characterize the physicochemical and biological characteristics of the dye obtained from dehydrated endocarp of the genipap (Genipa americana) fruit, as well as perform the relevant stability and cytotoxicity tests. The chemical characterization was performed by HPLC-MS/MS analyses. The stability studies were carried out by spectrophotometry and cytotoxicity assays using cell culture and fluorometric methods.Results and conclusionsAfter dehydration and milling of the fruit endocarp, water was added to the obtained powder (in the ratio 4:1) to extract the dye. Five compounds were elucidated using HPLC-MS/MS and confirmed the presence of the geniposide as its main compound. With the X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy analysis, we characterised the obtained powder as being amorphous and of porous structure with a variable size. The thermogravimetric analysis indicated a maximum loss of 61% mass after exposure to a temperature range from 240 to 760 °C. The obtained blue dye was stable in the absence of light, at room temperature and had neutral pH. In the cytotoxicity assay, (95.0±1.3) % of viable human fibroblasts were observed after exposure to this dye. The genipap fruit can be a viable alternative to produce a natural blue dye, since it is easy to obtain and has very low toxicity in food, pharmaceutical or cosmetic products.Novelty and scientific contributionThis study demonstrates for the first time the physicochemical and biological properties of a natural blue dye from G. americana fruit.

Genipap (Genipa americana L.) fruit extract as a source of antioxidant and antiproliferative iridoids

Iridoid blue-based pigments can be found in fruits of genipap (Genipa americana L.). Besides being a potential source of natural blue colorant in the food industry, they have also been associated with pharmacological effects. Therefore, the recovery of iridoids by ultrasound-assisted extraction from both unripe and ripe fruits was analysed by UPLC-DAD-ESI-(-)-QTOF-MS/MS. Nine iridoids were identified from their exact masses and fragmentation pattern, namely geniposidic acid, gardenoside, genipin-1-β-gentiobioside, geniposide, 6′'-O-p-coumaroyl-1-β-gentiobioside geniposidic acid, 6′′-O-p-coumaroylgenipin-gentiobioside, genipin, 6′-O-p-coumaroyl-geniposidic acid and 6′-O-feruloyl-geniposidic acid. Among them, genipin (60.77 mg/g fdw) was found to be the most abundant iridoid in unripe genipap extract, while the ripe genipap extract mainly contained geniposide and geniposidic acid (89.48 and 25.04 mg/g fdw, respectively). It was also observed that the iridoids of the unripe genipap extract are able to scavenger DPPH, ABTS and peroxyl radicals as well as exerting a cytostatic effect against both glioma and breast cancer cell lines. This study provided information about the properties of unripe and ripe genipap extracts which can be used as a reference for further studies focusing on the potential application of G. americana L. in commercial products containing natural blue colorant with functional claims.

In vitro bioactivity approach of unripe genipap (Genipa americana L., Rubiaceae) fruit extract and its solid lipid microparticle.

Growing awareness in favor of innovative and healthier alternatives is creating a noticeable shift from synthetic colorants to natural additives. And, such a swing in the consumer market is growing slowly but noticeably. In this context, genipap (Genipa americana L.) fruit represents an emerging source of blue colorants in Latin America with extensive application possibilities. This is despite the fact that there are few studies concerning its toxicity predictive factors. In this early-stage study we propose to investigate safety issues around genipap extract (IBBP); we also attempt to identify fingerprint profiling of both IBBP extract and solid lipid microparticles containing IBBP extract (SLM-IBBP) using in vitro assays. The main compounds identified were genipin, and genipin 1-β-gentiobioside. Results indicated that IBBP extract, at 25 µg/mL, was able to promote DNA damage in CHO-K1 cells, suggesting a genotoxic effect. On the other hand, the SLM-IBBP inhibited almost all cancer cell lines with GI50 ranging from 0.25 μg/mL to 43.5 μg/mL. Also, IBBP-SLM seems to exert a desirable apoptosis induction (at 25 µg/mL dosage). The next steps for our work, therefore, will focus on other nanoparticle formulation approaches, in particular with the use of natural Brazilian starch. An evaluation of the metabolism and distribution of microparticles, and their safety for food and pharmaceutical purposes, are also required.

Stability's evaluation of genippin obtained from genipap fruit (Genipa americana L.)

The iridoid blue-based pigments (IBBP, especially genipin) extract of genipap represents a natural alternative as blue colorant food applications. In this study, we evaluated the pH influence on genipin stability which was monitored during 30 days. Among the conditions tested, the color of genipap extract was more stable at pH 2.6-5.0, suggesting that it is compatible for coloring acidic foods.

Purification of phenolic compounds from genipap (<i>Genipa americana</i> L.) extract by the ultrasound assisted ultrafiltration process

The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of an integrated membrane process for purification of polyphenol and genipin components from genipap fruit extract. Optimal conditions for aqueous extraction of polyphenols from genipap fruit pulp were at 71°C for 49 min using a fruit pulp:water ratio of 1:3 (w w-1). Microfiltration with membranes of different pore sizes (0.22, 0.3 and 0.8 µm) resulted in a clarified permeate with similar physical-chemical properties, but the permeate flux through the 0.8 µm membrane was higher than through the other membranes. The sequential ultrafiltration process reduced even more total and soluble solids of the microfiltered extract. Purities of polyphenols and genipin were, respectively, 2.5 and 1.2 times greater in the permeate than in the feed stream. Application of ultrasound during the ultrafiltration increased the steady state permeate flux and the purities of polyphenols and genipin in the permeate stream. Results suggest application of microfiltration as a clarification step followed by the ultrasound assisted ultrafiltration to produce a purified genipap extract with high contents of polyphenols and genipin.

Extraction of natural blue colorant from Genipa americana L. using green technologies: Techno-economic evaluation

The use of green technologies for food production has increased in the last years since they allow obtaining safe products for human consumption. This study reports the optimization of the extraction of the natural blue colorant genipin from genipap fruit using pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), low-pressure extraction (LPSE), and pressing followed by LPSE (Press+LPSE). The effects of the extracting solvent (water and ethanol), temperature (40, 50 and 60°C) and pressure (0.1, 2, 5 and 8MPa) on the extraction yield and genipin recovery were investigated. An extensive economic evaluation of the processes was also performed. The results showed that only the extracting solvent influenced extraction yields and genipin recovery. Kinetic curves demonstrated that it was possible to recover 90% of the genipin in a very short time (less than 6min) by Press+LPSE. Press+LPSE also demonstrated a great economic feasibility with a payback time shorter than 1year.

High Performance of Asymmetric Alumina Hollow Fiber Membranes for the Clarification of Genipap (Genipa americana L.) Fruit Extract

Membrane filtration processes represent a suitable alternative for fruit juice treatment, but the applied membrane should present high stability and permeability. Here, we propose the development and application of ceramic asymmetric hollow fiber membranes for genipap extract clarification. Genipap is an exotic fruit from Central and South America with considerable concentration of phenolic and iridoid compounds. The dual-layer ceramic hollow fiber membrane was fabricated by a single-step co-extrusion and co-sintering process. The developed hollow fibers presented the desired asymmetric structure, with an inner finger-like region that guaranteed a suitable permeate flux (191 L h−1 m−2 at 1 bar), while the outer sponge-like layer was responsible for solid retentions and for the membrane mechanical resistance. Reductions in turbidity, total polyphenol content, and genipin concentration were of 52, 17, and 4%, respectively. Mathematical modeling of the experimental flux decay showed that pore blocking was the main fouling mechanism during filtrations of genipap extract through the asymmetric hollow fibers. The presence of microchannels with larger pore size in the inner surface of the fiber probably mitigated cake formation. The increase in the transmembrane pressure from 1 to 2 bar did not improve the permeation flux through the membrane since the fouling layer resistance was considerably higher at 2 bar than at 1 bar. Thus, asymmetric ceramic hollow fibers are suggested for juice fruit clarification with improved permeate flux and clarification degree.

Extraction of bioactive compounds from genipap (Genipa americana L.) by pressurized ethanol: Iridoids, phenolic content and antioxidant activity

The search for compounds with functional properties from natural sources has grown in recent years as people have developed healthier habits. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the extraction of bioactive compounds from various parts of unripe genipap fruit (Genipa americana L.) by using pressurized ethanol to verify which part of the fruit provides the greatest recovery of the iridoids genipin and geniposide. Two process variables were studied: temperature (50 and 80°C) and pressure (2, 12 and 20 bar). The whole fruit and the peel, mesocarp, endocarp, endocarp+seeds and seeds of the fruit were studied. The endocarp presented with the highest recovery of genipin (48.6±0.6mg/g raw material) and the extraction from the mesocarp allowed a greater recovery of geniposide (59±1mg/g raw material). The highest values of total phenolic content were obtained with mesocarp extracts. The endocarp and mesocarp extracts presented the highest antioxidant activity as measured by FRAP and DPPH. These results are promising and support the use of unripe genipap fruit as a source of iridoids and natural antioxidants.

Temperature model for process impact non-uniformity in genipin recovery by high pressure processing

A model for the process impact temperature non-uniformity during high pressure processing (HPP) of genipap fruit purees was found during genipin recovery. Purees were subjected to HPP (130–530MPa) under quasi-isobaric non-isothermal conditions (15min; 0, 4.6 and 9.3mg pectinases/g fruit). Genipin and protein concentration was determined, and pH was measured. Polygalacturonase activity was quantified indirectly by protein content (mg/g fruit). First order kinetics described temperature changes (0–4min). Polygalacturonase was activated at 130MPa, inactivated reversibly at 330MPa and activated again at 530MPa. Enzyme reaction rate constant (k) was placed in the 0–4min model and temperature from 2 to 15min was described. Protein content and pH characterization in terms of decimal reduction time improved highly the 2–15min model. Since temperature changes were modeled, more insight of its behavior in an HPP reactor was obtained, avoiding uniformity assumptions, making easier the industrial scale HPP implementation.

Recovery of genipin from genipap fruit by high pressure processing

High hydrostatic pressure (130–530 MPa) under quasi isobaric non-isothermal conditions was used for genipin recovery. Treatments were carried out on fresh made genipap fruit purees for 15 min with pectinases (0, 4.6 and 9.3 mg enzymes/g genipap). Liquid phase was subjected to pH and volume measurements, and wet weight of the solid phase was recorded. Genipin yield and protein concentration were determined. The highest genipin recovery (34.0 ± 1.5 mg/g) in the extract was found after treatment at 130 MPa without pectinases. Liberated liquid volume, wet solid weight and pH results were in line with reported data on the influence of pressure on pectinesterase and polygalacturonase.

Influence of the composition of unripe genipap (Genipa americana L.) fruit on the formation of blue pigment.

The physical and chemical characteristics of unripe genipap fruits and the proximate and amino acid compositions of the endocarp and mesocarp of the unripe fruits were determined, placing special emphasis on the possible role of the protein-amino acid fraction on the formation of the typical blue pigment of the matrix. The two parts of the fruit analyzed have low energy (49.88kcal/100g for mesocarp and 43.48kcal/100g for endocarp) and high fiber content (7.88% for mesocarp and 16.76% for endocarp). The endocarp showed protein content (3.19%) five times higher than the mesocarp (0.62%), which may explain in part the greater amounts of blue pigment formed in the endocarp when compared to the mesocarp. Furthermore, the pH found in mesocarp (4.49) and endocarp (5.21) is within the optimum range for the formation of the blue pigment. A significant color change (ΔE (*) = 26.45) was observed in endocarp during its exposure to the air for 2h. Free aspartic and glutamic acids and cystine were the predominant amino acids in the mesocarp, while glutamic and aspartic acids and leucine were predominant in the endocarp. According to the results, the formation of blue pigment does not cause any change in the amino acid composition.

Influence of the stage of ripeness on the composition of iridoids and phenolic compounds in genipap (Genipa americana L.).

Genipap fruits, native to the Amazon region, were classified in relation to their stage of ripeness according to firmness and peel color. The influence of the part of the genipap fruit and ripeness stage on the iridoid and phenolic compound profiles was evaluated by HPLC-DAD-MS(n), and a total of 17 compounds were identified. Geniposide was the major compound in both parts of the unripe genipap fruits, representing >70% of the total iridoids, whereas 5-caffeoylquinic acid was the major phenolic compound. In ripe fruits, genipin gentiobioside was the major compound in the endocarp (38%) and no phenolic compounds were detected. During ripening, the total iridoid content decreased by >90%, which could explain the absence of blue pigment formation in the ripe fruits after their injury. This is the first time that the phenolic compound composition and iridoid contents of genipap fruits have been reported in the literature.

Ultrafiltration for genipin recovery technologies after ultrasonic treatment of genipap fruit

Abstract Centrifugal ultrafiltration of genipap fruit extracts after mechanical/sonic enzymatic treatment was performed through 50, 30, 10 and 3 kDa molecular weight cutoff (MWCO) (15 min; 10 °C; 9425 g ). Volume, volume retention factor (VRF), flux, genipin and glucose concentrations were determined. Separation efficiency, retention, transmission coefficients (RC, TC), and membrane selectivity were estimated. Reduction in MWCO increased volume in the retentate (7.6±0.0 mL), decreased VRF (1.9±0.0) and flux (0.06±0.00 mL cm −2 min −1 ) after 3 kDa ultrafiltration. Genipin and glucose reached equilibrium in retentate and permeate (17±3.3; 16±1.5 mg mL −1 ; 41±2.2 and 41±4.8 mg mL −1 ) after 3 kDa ultrafiltration. The highest removal of genipin was 0.5±0.1. RC and TC were 0.5±0.1; selectivity for genipin was 0.9±0.0 after 3 kDa separation.

Volatile constituents from headspace and aqueous solution of genipap (Genipa americana) fruit isolated by the solid‐phase extraction method

AbstractVolatiles of genipap fruit were isolated by both headspace and liquid‐phase adsorptive chromatography and analysed by means of gas chromatography–flame ionization detection (GC–FID), GC–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and GC–olfactometry (GC–O)/aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA). A total of 52 volatiles were identified; among these, 32 were reported as genipap constituents for the first time. Thirty‐seven volatiles were positively identified in genipap fruit aroma. Low‐boiling esters predominated in the headspace fraction. Based on GC–O/AEDA, hexanoic, 2‐ and 3‐methylbutanoic acids and the corresponding methylbutanoic esters were the most potent odorants in both fractions. Thus they might be related to the first odour impression of the fruit. Odorants with lower odour potencies, such as methyl hexanoate, methyl and ethyl octanoate and acetic and 2‐methylpropanoic acids could have some additional effect on the fruit aroma. Vanillin, which was identified for the first time in this fruit, might also contribute to the overall genipap flavour. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Volatile constituents of genipap (Genipa americana L.) fruit from Cuba

Volatile constituents were isolated from genipap (Genipa americana L.) fruit by simultaneous steam distillation–solvent extraction according to Likens–Nickerson. Compounds were identified by capillary GC-MS. Ninety-eight compounds were identified in the aroma concentrate, of which hexadecanoic acid, octadecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, linalool and limonene were found to be the major constituents. Carboxylic acids, with their acidic and harsh notes, should play an important role in the flavor of the fruit. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.