General Theory Of Crime Research Articles

Pathways to Criminal Hacking: Connecting Lived Experiences with Theoretical Explanations

Background: Over the course of the last decade, cybercrime has become a significant global concern. A comprehensive approach to crimes that occur in cyber contexts needs to address not only the technological aspects of cybercrime but also the human elements. Therefore, the aim of the current research is twofold: first, to gain an in-depth understanding of the pathways that lead to criminal hacking behavior through interviews with current or former criminal hackers, and second, to explore how the lived experiences of these individuals fit within theoretical explanations of hacking. Method: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a sample of ten current and former criminal hackers. Participants for this study were recruited through social media and hacker forums. Interviews were conducted from November 2023 to March 2024. Data collected during the interviews were analyzed through a process of thematic analysis. Focusing on the lived experiences of these hackers, a “pathway of hacking” behavior, expanding upon those proposed in research emanating from Europe, was identified. Findings: Notably, the current study found that young males who are curious and creative in childhood, experience destabilizing events, and develop an early interest in technology are well placed to follow the pathway to criminal hacking behavior. Online gaming was identified as a possible gateway to criminal hacking activities. A sense of overcoming a challenge, being elite, and having “control over the machine” encourages youth to continue criminal hacking activities. In addition to the identification of a criminal hacking pathway, an integration of existing cyberpsychological, psychological, criminological, and sociological theories is presented to provide a theoretical explanation for the initiation, continuation, and desistence of criminal hacking behavior. This work represents the first effort to present an integration of theories (e.g., Social Learning, General Theory of Crime, Flow, and the cyberpsychological theoretical construct of the “Online Disinhibition Effect”) based on the stages of the criminal hacking pathway.

Short-term mindsets show co-development with adolescent delinquency, but not with adolescent cannabis use.

Guided by General Theory of Crime and Psychosocial Maturity Hypothesis, we investigated co-development between short-term mindsets (impulsivity and future orientation) and risk behaviors (cannabis use and delinquency). Parallel process latent growth modeling on three-wave data from ethnically diverse Swiss adolescents (N = 1365; Mage 13.67 years, 48.6% female), showed baseline-level associations between short-term mindsets and risk behaviors, and between the two risk behaviors. Additionally, correlated change (co-development) existed between short-term mindsets-particularly impulsivity-and delinquency, but not between short-term mindsets and cannabis use. These results support the above-mentioned theories and emphasize the importance of investigating the correlates of change in delinquency and cannabis use separately, as divergent findings might emerge. These divergent findings could partially stem from Switzerland's liberal views on cannabis use.

CRIMINOGENIC BEHAVIOR WITHIN THE ACADEMIC COMMUNITY

This article explores the application of criminological theories to understand and mitigate academic dishonesty, with a focus on the outsourcing of assignments in higher education. Drawing on strain theory, social learning theory, the General Theory of Crime, neutralization theory, and control theory, we analyze the multifaceted roots of academic dishonesty. These theories shed light on the pressures, environmental influences, and rationalizations that lead students to engage in outsourcing behaviors. By integrating these criminological insights, the article provides a comprehensive framework for educators and academic institutions to develop targeted interventions. Recommendations include addressing academic strain, fostering a positive learning environment, enhancing self-control and ethical decision-making skills, countering rationalizations for dishonesty, strengthening institutional bonds, enforcing clear policies, and judiciously using technology. Ultimately, the article advocates for a holistic approach to promoting academic integrity, aiming to reduce the incidence of outsourcing and cultivate an ethical academic culture.

The Deviance and Relationship between Locus of Control, Control Ratio, and Self‐Control

The purpose of the current study is to examine the widely used term controllability through analysis of three important factors, based on three known theories of delinquency: The first factor, the control ratio, is the relationship between people's perception of their control over their environment and their perception of the environment's control over them (Tittle, Control Balance: Toward a General Theory of Deviance, Westview, 1995; Tittle, Theor. Criminol., 8, 2004, 395; Tittle, Recent Developments in Criminological Theory, Routledge, 2017). The second factor, locus of control, differentiates between people who think they control their own lives and those who feel that their lives control them (Rotter, Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80 (1, Whole No. 609), 1966). Finally, the third factor, self‐control, relates to people's ability to direct their behavior (Gottfredson & Hirschi, A general Theory of Crime, Stanford University, 1990). Five research hypotheses were examined: (1) the higher the internal locus of control, the lower the external locus of control – fate and others; (2) the higher the self‐control, the higher the internal locus of control/control ratio; (3) the greater the lack of control (i.e., the lower the control ratio), the greater the external locus of control; (4) the lower the self‐control, the higher the external locus of control/lack of control; (5) the higher the control ratio, the higher the internal locus of control. Questionnaires were completed by 215 undergraduate students from four different faculties from the same university, 53 males and 58 females studying psychology or social work (i.e., therapy‐oriented disciplines), 58 males and 46 females studying economics or law (i.e., non‐therapy‐oriented disciplines). The findings of the study reinforced all five hypotheses, thereby providing an additional layer of infrastructure for conducting the important mapping of various factors that are part of controllability. The results also enabled ties and connections to be made between these and additional factors, on the road to understanding, coping with and intervening in a range of human activities in general, and deviant behavior specifically.

Testing stability of self-control over time among South Korean Youth using semi-parametric group-based modeling

Gottfredson and Hirschi argued the self-control theory in A General Theory of Crime (1990). Since then, many studies have examined the central proposition of low self-control as the cause of criminal behavior with cross-sectional data. However, few research studies have tested other stability propositions that low self-control is stable across the life-course and that once it is established at age 8 to 10, it remains relatively stable regardless of life changes. The purpose of this study was to examine stability postulate of the self-control theory. The current study used six-wave panel data of the Korean Children & Youth Panel Survey (KCYPS), which measured self-control of elementary school students at one year each of time points. The test of relative stability hypothesis comprises four analyses of data: correlations, individual change scores, SGM (Semi-parametric Group-based Modeling), and Multinomial Logistic Regression. Results revealed that the hypothesis of self-control stability was not strongly supported by the longitudinal data. Based on prior empirical research and this study’s finding, more research is needed to determine the stability of self-control.

Self-Control and Curiosity: Has Curiosity Been an Overlooked Concept in the Crime/Deviance Decision-Making Process?

ABSTRACT We conducted an empirical test of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s, 1990 A General Theory of Crime in this exploratory study to introduce the concept of curiosity to criminological theory. Specifically, we tested whether self-control was significantly associated with curiosity and whether curiosity significantly predicted a crime/deviance index beyond the effects of self-control. An original eight item curiosity scale was created that measured both an attitudinal curiosity dimension and a behavioral curiosity component and compared the ability of this new measure with the capability of the most commonly used self-control scale in predicting a crime/deviance index. Data was derived from a convenience sample of college students. As theoretically predicted, self-control was significantly correlated with curiosity, and the curiosity scale significantly predicted the crime/deviance index, beyond the effects of the self-control scale. More conservative tests demonstrated that curiosity also significantly predicted involvement in more specific illegal/deviance measures, including those involving somewhat serious delinquent/criminal conduct. The findings led us to conclude that curiosity may be another additional cause of crime/deviance beyond the effects of self-control, curiosity explains more than just involvement in exploratory types of illegal/deviant behavior, and that curiosity has been an overlooked concept in the crime/deviance decision-making process.

Violations of Emergent Norms Regarding COVID-19 Mitigation and Social Hygiene: An Application of Agnew’s General Theory of Crime

This study examines self-reported violations of emergent norms and regulations regarding COVID-19 mitigation and social hygiene practices among a sample of high school students randomly selected from public schools in Rasht, Iran. The study seeks to explain these COVID-19 ordinance violations through the application of Agnew’s general integrated theory of crime. Findings demonstrate that life domains, motivations, and constraints have a direct effect on COVID-19 misbehavior. Moreover, life domains have an indirect effect on COVID-19 misbehavior through both constraints and motivations. Finally, the relationship between motivations and COVID-19 misbehavior is moderated by the peers domain, whereas the relationship between constraints and COVID-19 misbehavior is moderated by the family domain and school domain.

How Positive and Negative Childhood Experiences Interact With Resiliency Theory and the General Theory of Crime in Juvenile Probationers

Self-control and resiliency in juveniles are each thought to be relevant to the onset of delinquency and recidivism, and both are related to family environments and other childhood experiences. The general theory of crime is well established within the literature as an explanation for offending at all ages, and resiliency perspectives stress the importance of things like independence and morality to avoiding/desisting from deviance among juveniles. Here, Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Positive Childhood Experiences (PCEs) are examined among 3604 juvenile probationers in the contexts of the general theory of crime and the compensatory, protective factor, and challenge models of resiliency theory. Results show that high ACE scores were associated with diminished self-control, and high PCE scores were correlated with better self-control. Policy implications are discussed.

Cyberharassment Victimization on Three Continents: An Integrative Approach.

This article introduces and applies an integrative model of cyberharassment victimization. The model combines routine activity theory (RAT), the general theory of crime (GTC), and the personal resources approach to analyze risk factors for victimization while acknowledging the protective role of a sense of mastery. Survey respondents were aged 15 to 25 years (N = 4816) from the U.S., Finland, Spain, and South Korea. Logistic regression models were used to analyze cyberharassment victimization. RAT-related factors were positively associated with cyberharassment victimization. Low self-control was positively associated with cyberharassment victimization in the U.S., Finland, and Spain but not in South Korea. The sense of mastery was negatively associated with cyberharassment victimization in the U.S., Finland, and South Korea but not in Spain. Protective factors against cyberharassment victimization should be utilized in future studies as adequate knowledge of protective factors could assist policymakers in generating preventative measures against cyberharassment. Our study demonstrates the benefits of integrating criminological theories and protective factors in studies using cross-national data to gain a better understanding of the dynamics of cyberharassment.

Self-Control and Intimate Partner Violence: Does Gender Matter?

ABSTRACT The present study focuses on the interrelationships among gender, self-control, and intimate partner violence (IPV). The extant bodies of literature suggest that both IPV and low self-control are gendered phenomena. That is, males tend to display lower mean levels of self-control than females, and there are notable differences in IPV between males and females. Since both phenomena are gendered, it is plausible that the relationship between self-control and IPV may also be gendered. To that end, the purpose of the present study is to explore the role played by gender in the relationship between self-control and IPV. To accomplish this, a sample of currently dating undergraduate and graduate college students (n = 960) was analyzed. The first objective is to determine whether self-control and IPV vary across gender. The second objective is to examine whether self-control predicts IPV differently by gender. Results indicated partial support for Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime. Self-control operated similarly on IPV for both males and females, supporting the gender-neutrality of their theory. However, the interaction between gender and self-control did not significantly impact IPV offending. Moreover, the gender gap in crime as it relates to self-control remains in question as females were more likely than males to commit more types of IPV. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

The Role of Self-Control in Predicting Intimate Partner Violence Specialization in an Australian Community Sample

PurposeThis study builds on knowledge of intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration by examining theoretically important aspects of this crime within an Australian community sample. More specifically, the current study examines the relationship between IPV offenders’ levels of self-control and offense specialization and determines whether this relationship differs by gender.MethodAn online survey advertised on social media yielded an analysis sample of 155 females and 170 males. Self-control was measured using the Brief Self-Control scale and specialization was measured with the Offense Specialization Coefficient (OSC) and a multilevel item response theory measurement approach.ResultsFindings indicate that IPV offenders with low levels of self-control are more versatile in their offending and that this relationship was more evident and pronounced for females.ConclusionsFindings are mostly supportive of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime and highlight important differences within IPV offender populations that should be considered when designing targeted prevention and intervention methods.

Life Domains, Constraints, Motivations, and Intimate Partner Violence: Assessing the Generality of Agnew’s General Theory of Crime and Delinquency

Given the victim-offender overlap, it has been suggested that every theory about offenders implies a corresponding theory of victimization. We assess the above assertion concerning Agnew’s general theory of crime and delinquency within the context of intimate partner violence (IPV). Drawing data from the International Dating Violence Study, we examine the direct and indirect effects of the self, family, school/work, and peer domains on IPV perpetration and victimization. We found the four life domains significantly predicted both IPV perpetration and victimization and their effects on both outcome variables were mediated by the constraint and motivation factors. Our results indicate that the mechanisms that account for offending posited in Agnew’s perspective appear to be equally relevant and applicable for understanding victimization.

The Idea of Criminal Liability of the Commercial Company

The Idea of Criminal Liability of the Commercial Company

The Applicability of Social Structure and Social Learning Theory to Explain Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration Across National Contexts.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) affects men and women worldwide. However, a comprehensive examination of the etiology of IPV perpetration across national contexts is limited. Since Aker's Social Structure and Social Learning (SSSL) theory was developed as a general theory of crime, national differences in social structure should explain social learning, which in turn should explain IPV perpetration. Therefore, the current study tests the applicability of SSSL and the mediation effect of the social learning process on the connection between social structural factors and IPV perpetration. Data on IPV perpetration by both male and female college students in 30 nations were taken from the International Dating Violence Study. Structural-level indicators of gender equality for individual nations were taken from Global Gender Gap Index. Findings suggest that national-level gender equality is partially mediated by definitions favorable to breaking the law; a component of SSSL theory. However, other components of the social learning process, such as differential association, differential reinforcement, and imitation, were not found to have mediating effects. The findings only partially support SSSL theory that social learning variables mediate the effect of gender equality on IPV perpetration. Implications of the findings are discussed.

The Impact of Life Domains on Delinquent Behaviors in Five Caribbean Countries: A Partial Test of Agnew's General Theory of Crime and Delinquency.

The current study tests the applicability of Agnew's (2005) general theory of crime and delinquency to a sample of Caribbean Community (CARICOM) youths and explains the hypothesized direct and indirect/mediated effects of family attachment and peer delinquency on delinquent behaviors. Data for this study were obtained from a 2014 cross-sectional survey of 512 adolescents from the five members of the CARICOM. This study utilizes mediation analysis. Results reveal that adolescents with abuse experience from family members and unsafe school environments are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior. Furthermore, peer delinquency is significantly related to delinquent behavior and mediates the link between child abuse, family history of violence, unsafe school environment, and subsequent delinquent behavior. Finally, child abuse generated a lower level of family attachment, and then a higher level of family attachment led to a lower likelihood of subsequent delinquent behavior.

Gender, Life Domains, and Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration: A Partial Test of Agnew’s General Theory of Crime and Delinquency

Objectives We assess the proposed mechanisms outlined in Agnew’s General Theory of Crime and Delinquency about gender differences in crime and deviance (gender differences are due to differences between males and females in their standing on the life domains or differences in the effect of the life domains on the phenomenon among males and females) in accounting for sex differences in intimate partner violence (IPV) among a sample of young adults. Methods Drawing data from the International Dating Violence Study (IDVS) and employing the negative binomial regression method, we examined the effects of six self-domains, four family domains, one school/work domain, and one peer domain measures on IPV. Results Although males reported a higher frequency across all five life domains compared to females, the number of life domain variables that were significantly related to IPV among females was greater than the number among males. Further, the effects of the life domain variables on IPV were different for males and females with the peer variable (criminal peers) exhibiting the greatest effect on IPV among males and the self-domain (anger issues) demonstrating the greatest effect on IPV among females. Conclusions Agnew’s theory is well suited to assess sex differences in IPV.

Illegal use of fertilized eggs outside the womb (A comparative study)

Illegal use of fertilized eggs outside the womb (A comparative study)

The Role of Psychology Prevention in Controlling Student Victimization in Terms of Accounting Method (A Case Study of Sari)

With its negative psychological, economic, and social effects, student delinquency is one of Iran's most critical social issues; Iran has a young population in terms of population structure. The purpose of this article is not to search for the causes of studentdelinquency, in cases such as theft, vandalism and violence, in the whole of Iran, but to focus on the city of Sari to conduct such studies in other major cities, to comment on the community or Provide thighs. This study used a combined theoretical framework (general theory of crime) consisting of social connection and self-control theories. The findings of this study show that adolescents with poor self-control have poor social bonds and commit more crimes.

The Impact of Life Domains on Developmental Trajectories of Peer Delinquency among Korean Adolescents: A Partial Test of Agnew's General Theory of Crime and Delinquency with a Group-Based Trajectory Modeling Approach.

Agnew introduced a new integrated theory; the General Theory of Crime and Delinquency, in which he attempted to corral the most influential predictors of criminal behavior into more parsimonious propositions of multiple life domains-self, family, peer, school, and work-as well as constraints against crime and motivations for it. This study presents a partial test of the theory using longitudinal data of 2,351 Korean adolescents. A group-based modeling approach (latent class growth analysis) was run to examine direct effects of life domains on peer delinquency as well as mediating effects of constraints and motivation on their relationships. The study identified three subgroups: early onset/decreasing (3.2%), moderate (12.4%), and low/none (84.4%). The findings revealed that the self and peer domains exhibited a positive impact on the early onset/decreasing trajectory group compared to the low/none group with the constraint exhibiting a negative impact. The moderate trajectory group demonstrated that the self-domain was significant but was not rendered insignificant after controlling for constraints and motivations. The study provided moderate support for life domains within Agnew's new theory for peer delinquency in nonwestern countries.

Functions of parenting styles on patterns of general and serious delinquency trajectories: A mediated model of school climates and delinquent peer association

IntroductionThis study partially tests Agnew’s (2005, 2011) general theory of crime and delinquency, drawing out the differential roles of parenting, constraints, and motivations when comparing general delinquency trajectories and serious delinquency trajectories. MethodsUsing data from a 7-year follow-up study of 927 South Korean male adolescents, the study incorporates a group-based trajectory modeling to identify subgroups, each having a unique pattern of trajectories, respectively. ResultsThe models yielded 3 subgroups: Early onset & decreaser, Increaser & late peak, and Normative for general delinquency as well as Serious delinquent, Moderate delinquents, and Normative for serious delinquency. The results reveal that compared to Normative group, parenting styles were significant of both the Moderate and Serious delinquents groups for only serious delinquency even after controlling for constraints and motivations. The odds of belonging to both the Early-Onset & Decreaser and Increaser & Late Peak groups for general delinquency and the Moderate Delinquents group for serious delinquency were significantly higher for those who more frequently associated with delinquent peers. Depression was significant among members of the Early-Onset & Decreaser group, while school connectedness was significant among members of the Increaser & Late Peak group for general delinquency. There were no mediating role of constraints and motivations in the parent-delinquency prediction. ConclusionsIntervention programs aimed at improving parenting skills can be developed to decrease the likelihood of delinquency.