General Strain Theory Research Articles

Exposure to Violence at Home and Bullying in School: A Test of an Additional Layer of General Strain Theory

ABSTRACT School bullying continues to be a major concern in Trinidad and Tobago. Despite its prevalence and governmental efforts to reduce bullying, relatively few studies have examined the relationship between exposure to violence at home and school bullying in this nation. This study intends to examine the relationship between exposure to violence at home, anger, school culture toward bullying, and school bullying within the context of General Strain Theory. Using data collected from 1,248 students in ten primary schools in Trinidad, this study found that exposure to violence at home had significant influences on bullying in school. Further, anger significantly mediated the relationship between exposure to violence at home and school bullying while the moderating effects of anger and school culture favorable toward bullying were statistically significant.

Understanding the Mechanisms Mediating the Relationship Between Delinquent Peer Association and Adolescent Drug Use in the Greater China Region

Prior research on delinquent peer association and adolescent drug use predominantly examines the direct link between the two factors from the differential association/social learning perspective. The current study, based on survey data among 8,027 secondary school students sampled from three major cities in the Greater China Region, aims to elucidate this relationship further by identifying key mediators derived from several major criminological theories and perspectives, including social learning theory, lifestyle/routine activity theory, general strain theory, and the opportunity perspective. This study finds that significant mediators include pro-drug use attitudes, crime victimization, and drug availability, with pro-drug use attitudes exerting the most substantial influence on adolescent drug use. These results underscore the complexity of the relationship between delinquent peer association and adolescent drug use, advocating for a multifaceted theoretical approach for comprehensive understanding.

Endorsing Deviance: Examining the Influence of Legitimacy and Injustice on Responses to Strain

ABSTRACT Although scholars have theoretically addressed how information from others can affect justice processes, little empirical research investigates how individuals make sense of a distributive injustice when also attending to other justice and legitimacy concerns. This research examines how legitimacy conditions emotional and behavioral responses to various forms of injustice associated with strain. Drawing from General Strain Theory (GST) and the social psychological literature on legitimacy and justice, I investigate how endorsement of a deviant response to injustice, while failing to support the perpetrator of injustice, influences negative affect and projected deviant coping in response to a distributively unjust blocked goal. A randomized vignette survey was distributed to a sample of undergraduates. Results reveal that legitimacy affects perceptions of justice and conditions the effect of unjust strain on negative affect and the likelihood of deviance, but only when certain types of injustice are present.

Discrimination, Unfair Treatment by Police, and Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration Among Black and Latino Men

ABSTRACT Discrimination and unfair treatment by police are salient racial injustices for Black and Latino men. General Strain Theory and the Theory of African American Offending point to the potential of these leading to outcomes like intimate partner violence perpetration (IPV). Drawing on theoretical predictions and analyses of the Add Health data, I found evidence that discrimination and unfair treatment by police had independent effects on IPV perpetration for Black and Latino men. The effect of racial injustices varied for Latino men such that both types were strong contributors to IPV perpetration for immigrant Latino men but not US born Latino men.

The Link Between Bullying Victimization and Gun Possession

ABSTRACT Despite a large body of research exploring the influence of adolescent bullying victimization on a range of outcomes such as gun possession, scholars know less about the factors driving these relationships. Grounded in Agnew’s general strain theory, this study investigated whether the influence of bullying victimization on gun carrying behaviors operates indirectly through depressive symptoms. To answer this question, this study used data collected from a statewide representative sample of 9,819 middle and high school students who participated in the 2019 Florida Youth Substance Abuse Survey. Net of other potential confounding influences including race, age, sex, and level of parental education, results from the analyses indicate bullying victimization increased the odds that a respondent carries a gun. When a measure of depressive symptoms was added to the model, however, the bullying victimization variable dropped to non-significance, thus suggesting bullying victimization increased one’s depressive symptoms, which, in turn, increased the odds a respondent carried a gun. Furthermore, results from a Karlson – Holm – Breen (KHB) decomposition analysis revealed this indirect effect was statistically significant. The results from this study provide parents, teachers, and policymakers with information to help address issues associated with bullying and gun carrying behaviors among adolescents.

Exploring the Impact of Routine Activity and Financial Strain on Fraud Victimization During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Hong Kong

This study examines the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on fraud victimization in Hong Kong, providing valuable insights beyond the Western context. Drawing on general strain theory and routine activity theory, this research explores the influence of economic recession at the local and adjacent societal levels, as well as residential duration (refers to relative time spent at residences), on fraud victimization in Hong Kong. Utilizing 10 years (120 months) of monthly police-recorded victimization data, this study employs various methodologies, including ARIMA forecasting, single-group interrupted time series analysis (ITSA), and Poisson regression, to explore the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on fraud victimization in Hong Kong. The ARIMA framework reveals an unexpected and significant increase in fraud victimization during the COVID-19 period, surpassing the predicted levels. The ITSA results demonstrate that the pandemic had a short-term and long-term effect on fraud victimization in Hong Kong. To further understand the factors contributing to this change, a Poisson regression analysis is conducted. The findings highlight the positive and significant impact of residential duration and the unemployment rate in mainland China on fraud victimization, aligning with the propositions of routine activity theory and general strain theory. Limitations and policy implications at both the local and international levels are discussed.

Sexuality Minority Status, Victimization, Mental Health, and Substance Use

Background: Prior research suggests that sexual minority status is related to victimization, mental health issues, and substance use. However, few studies have sought to connect these relationships in a way supported by theory, and fewer have utilized probability and/or nationally representative samples. Objective: The current study seeks to test the relationships among these variables, guided by general strain theory (GST). Methods: One wave of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health dataset (Add Health) (N = 14,121) and path modeling in Mplus are utilized. Results: Models run separately by race/ethnicity suggest that the relationship among these variables largely support expectations from GST, but with some notable differences by race/ethnicity. Conclusion: Results suggest a relationship among these variables that concurs with criminological theorizing. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Subordination to Women, Anger, and Endorsement of Violence Against Women: A Test of General Strain Theory

Using Agnew’s (1992) general strain theory (GST), we assess the connection between men’s strained masculinity (stress at subordination to women scenarios), anger produced by strained masculinity, and endorsing friends’ harassment and abuse of women. In a convenience sample of 859 men aged 18 to 32, men who report greater strain and anger in response to hypothetical scenarios and men higher in trait anger are more likely to endorse friends’ violence against women. We contribute to GST by testing the effects of both state and trait anger as a link between strained masculinity and endorsement of violence and exploitation of women.

The unintended consequence of school suspension: How school suspension impacted future grades and misconduct

The goals of this study were to explore the mechanism via which school suspension leads to adverse academic and behavioral consequences. The author utilized the theoretical framework of general strain theory and assessed whether bonds with school, a prosocial bond preventing deviant outcomes, functioned as a mediator in the path between school suspension and students’ future performance. Based on four waves of longitudinal data of at-risk youth, the study employed structural equation modeling and bootstrapping methods to examine the nexus of suspension, perceived school environment, and adverse academic and behavioral outcomes. Findings revealed that school suspension deteriorated subsequent ratings of school environment among youth respondents. Further, an indirect effect between suspension and worsening of grades was observed and this indirect effect resulted in low ratings of school environment. Although suspension directly predicted future misconduct, no mediation effect of school environment was identified in this link. Implications for intervention programming are discussed.

Applying General Strain Theory to the Relationship Between Strain from Another Person's Gambling Behavior and Gambling Disorder.

Prior research has identified a host of factors that increase the likelihood that an individual will develop problem gambling, clinically diagnosed as Gambling Disorder (GD), most of which would be identified by criminologists as "strains" under the framework of General Strain Theory (GST). This study utilizes propositions from GST to determine whether strain from another person's gambling may be related to why people develop GD and whether gender is a moderating factor in this relationship. Secondary data is analyzed to assess levels of strain individuals experience from another person's gambling behavior, its relationship to the individual's risk of Gambling Disorder, and the role gender plays in this relationship. Findings demonstrate a relationship between the strain from the perceived problem gambling of someone with a close relationship and having a gambling disorder. Experiencing strain from a spouse/partner who is perceived as a problem gambler has the strongest correlation with an individual also having Gambling Disorder. Considering gender as a moderating factor, this effect was stronger on men than women, calling into question the strong belief that it is primarily women who gamble to escape problems.

Treat me fairly now or I will commit misconduct later: integrating general strain and procedural (in)justice in graduate education

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to integrate general strain theory and procedural justice in the context of research misconduct in university settings. Design/methodology/approach Drawing on media accounts and past research, the authors present data on the financial costs of research misconduct to universities and identify graduate school processes as a possible source of strain may lead to misconduct. Relevant research on procedural justice in organizational settings is also examined. Findings The available literature suggests that the use of procedurally just practices will help reduce strain, and in doing so, potentially prevent research misconduct in university settings. The authors present an integrated theoretical model that can be tested in future empirical studies of research misconduct and other forms of white-collar crime in universities. Directions for future theoretically informed research are discussed, along with recommendations for graduate program administrators. Originality/value Research misconduct causes significant financial and reputational costs to universities. While past research focuses on mentoring and training for preventing misconduct by graduate students, this study argues that the use of fair evaluations and other procedurally just processes is also important.

Strains and Maladaptive Behaviors among High School Students in Qatar: An Empirical Test of the General Strain Theory

Objectives: This study aims to test the core assumption of Agnew’s general strain theory(GST) in maladaptive behavior (substance use, suicidality, and school truancy). Testing the effects of strain variables (negative life events) on negative emotions that lead to maladaptive behaviors or criminal coping. The present study tests the validity and applicability of a widely known criminological (GST) theory in a non-Western culture. Moreover, one significant contribution of this study is its applicability and generalizability in an Arabian heterogeneous society and culture. Methods: A survey was used, and a questionnaire was developed to measure the GST major assumptions and maladaptive behavior (substance use, suicidality, and school truancy). The survey was distributed among students by trained teams in public schools. A sample of 4096 high school students was randomly selected from seven public schools in Qatar. Results:. Findings showed that some negative life events variables had the highest significant unique contribution (when holding other variables constant) on the maladaptive behaviors more than other variables. These variables are: Depression had the highest significant unique contribution to suicidality, followed by violent victimization and negative feelings. Assaults had the highest significant unique contribution to substance use, followed by delinquency and sexual harassment. Assaults had the most significant unique contribution to school truancy, followed by delinquency. Conclusions: Findings suggest limiting maladaptive behaviors and crimes by equipping students with crime-preventive traits, increasing social support, enhancing social control, and reducing exposure to crime-prone situations. Schools should educate students on managing negative emotions and stress, implement low-abiding coping methods, and conduct awareness campaigns on illegal coping methods to prevent criminal behavior.

College Students are Helping Each Other Cheat in the Group Chat and Here’s Why

ABSTRACT When students have a space of their own, unobserved by professors and administrators, where they can freely talk about their classes and share their coursework, many engage in academic dishonesty. But, as observed in the present study, cheating is not a foregone conclusion for students who decide to join an online group chat. The present study examined N = 30 GroupMe chatrooms associated with undergraduate classes at a mid-sized “Southern State University” – observing academic dishonesty how it happens, when it happens. Significant associations rooted in techniques of neutralization and general strain theory were observed for both the solicitation of academic dishonesty and responses to those solicitations. As hypothesized, greater academic dishonesty was observed for appeals to higher loyalties and denial of responsibility. While the denial of injury and condemnation of the condemners each corresponded with greater solicitation of academic dishonesty, no effects were observed for responses to solicitation. The removal of positively valued stimuli also corresponded with more academic dishonesty. However, the presentation of negatively valued stimuli and failure to achieve positively valued goals were, unexpectedly, associated with less of this kind of behavior. Implications for designing out academic dishonesty are proposed within the context of these findings.

Interactions Between Forced Sexual Intercourse Victimization and Gender on Violent Behaviors: Youth Risk Behavior Survey 2017-2019.

In recent years, the United States has seen an increase in gun-related violence and school shootings. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that the incidence of gun carrying among high-school students has declined. Nevertheless, an examination of the underlying factors that increase the risk of violence-related behaviors is necessary to develop interventions to decrease gun use among high-school students. General Strain Theory (GST) predicts that victims of violence are (a) significantly more likely to engage in violent behaviors and (b) the increased risk of violent behavior by persons who experience violence is significantly greater among male victims. This research aims to test these predictions of the strain theory with data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). To that end, it investigates whether the relationship between forced sexual intercourse victimization (FSIV) and gun or weapon carrying or physical fighting is significantly greater among male students. Using R and pooled data from the nationally representative YRBS (2017 and 2019), additive interactions were estimated according to Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology guidelines to determine the association between FSIV and weapon carry, gun carry, or physical fighting. Multiplicative interactions and odds ratios were also estimated for comparison. Results show a high risk of gun and weapon carrying and physical fighting among both male and female students who experience FSIV and a significant relationship between FSIV and increased risk of these violence-related behaviors. Additive interactions show that the relationship between FSIV and these violent behaviors is significantly greater among male students than female students. Results confirm the predictions of GST and show that FSIV significantly increases the risk of gun carrying and other violence-related behaviors among male and female U.S. high-school students; the increased risk is significantly greater among male students.

Adolescent Binge Drinking: An Examination of Three Criminological Theories

ABSTRACT The purpose of the present study is to examine the links between measures of social learning theory, self-control theory, and general strain theory and adolescent binge drinking. Using data from the Monitoring the Future 2019 Survey 2, the results indicate support for all three of the theories. In particular, soft drug using peers, personality version of low self-control, and depression all had links with adolescent binge drinking. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed below.

Which need satisfaction better explains the relation between parental psychological control and adolescent behavior problems: A parallel multi-mediator model based on general strain theory

ObjectivePredicated on the general strain theory and self-determination theory, the present study seeks to comparatively evaluate how well the (dis)satisfaction of three psychological needs (i.e., autonomy, competence, and relatedness) can individually serve as a mechanism by which parental psychological control influences adolescent behavior problems jointly represented by depression, aggression, social anxiety, and problematic internet use. Method974 Chinese adolescents (Mage = 14.4, SD = 1.49; 46.7 % girl) constituted the sample. At three time points, they completed scales measuring parental psychological control, basic psychological needs, depression, aggression, social anxiety, and problematic internet use. A parallel multi-mediator model was adopted to contrast the individual mediation effect of satisfaction of three psychological need in the path from parental psychological control to adolescent behavior problems. Results(1) Parental psychological control directly predicts adolescent behavior problems. (2) Autonomy and competence need satisfaction independently mediate the association between parental psychological control and behavior problems while relatedness need satisfaction does not. (3) there is no difference in the strength of mediation between autonomy and competence need satisfaction. Yet, both autonomy and competence need satisfaction have a stronger mediation effect than relatedness need satisfaction. ConclusionThe findings demonstrate that in accounting for the relation between parental psychological control and adolescent behavior problems, autonomy and competence need satisfaction may represent better mechanisms than relatedness need satisfaction. Interventions targeting maladaptive parenting practices and adolescent maladjustment in the post-pandemic era need to consider the potency of relevant psychological mechanisms in operation as well as the sociocultural characteristics.

Explaining Substance Use among Puerto Rican Older Adults: Impact of Perceived Discrimination, Perceived Stress, and Social Activities

Background: Despite Puerto Ricans having one of the highest rates of substance use among Hispanic groups in the United States, limited research has focused on the impact of perceived discrimination and stress on substance use among older adults. Individuals who experience stressful events are inclined to engage in harmful behaviors as a coping mechanism. Objectives: Based on the propositions of the General Strain Theory, the current study explores the relationship between perceived discrimination, perceived stress, social activities, and the use of alcohol and cigarettes. Methods: Baseline data from the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study collected in 2014 was used to conduct a logistic regression analysis. Results: The findings reveal that while perceived discrimination is significantly linked to both types of substance use, social activities may serve as a protective factor for cigarette use. Conclusion/Importance: Our study findings emphasize the need to examine perceived discrimination as a stressor impacting the health and well-being of Puerto Ricans in later adulthood. Policy implications for reducing substance use and directions for future research are discussed

The Effect of Bully Victimization on Self-Reported Delinquency and Substance Use Using the General Strain Theory Framework: Sex, Race, and Ethnicity Differences

ABSTRACT Young people who are bullied in school are more likely to skip school and engage in antisocial behavior than those who are not bullied. Through Agnew’s general strain theory (GST), bully victimization is considered an experienced strain, and deviant behavior may be one reaction to such strain. In contrast, skipping school can allow young people who are being bullied at school the chance to avoid victimization and is representative of what Agnew refers to as anticipated strain. The current study assesses whether bully victimization and skipping school due to bully victimization are associated with self-reported delinquency and substance use and whether these effects vary by the demographics of participants (e.g. sex, race, and ethnicity). Using data from the 2022 Florida Youth Substance Abuse Survey, results indicate that only experienced measures of physical bully victimization and cyberbully victimization are associated with a greater variety of delinquency and substance use but verbal abuse was related to lower variety of substance use in the overall sample. While results largely suggest that the effects of strain on these outcomes do not significantly differ between males and females, there is evidence that some of these effects differ between races and ethnicities.

LGBTQ+ identity and delinquency: the importance of negative emotions and social bonds

ABSTRACT While prior research has examined differences in delinquency by LGBTQ+ identity, few have attempted to explain these differences within the scope of main criminological theories. Drawing on general strain theory and social bond theory, this study uses data from the Technology, Teen Dating Violence and Abuse, and Bullying in Three States, 2011–2012 survey (N = 5,647) to examine if negative emotions and different types of social bonds mediate relationships between LGBTQ+ identity and delinquency. Results show that youth who identify as LGBTQ+ report higher levels of negative emotions and lower levels of parental and school bonds compared to those who identify as heterosexual and cisgender. Results also show that youth who identify as LGBTQ+ report higher odds of general delinquency, marijuana use, and other drug use compared to youth who identify as heterosexual and cisgender. Finally, results show that relationships between LGBTQ+ identity and delinquency are largely mediated by negative emotions and school bonds.

Terrorism, Insecurity and Youth Criminality in Nigeria: A Critical View from A Criminological Lens

Objectives: Terrorism is a global social problem that is presently receiving overwhelming attention and concern from all corners. The government, researchers, policymakers, Non-Governmental affected by the effect of this cankerworm. If left to thrive, it might drag the world into oblivion. This study examines terrorism, insecurity, and youth criminality in Nigeria: a critical view from a criminological lens Organizations, and law enforcement are all striving daily to figure a way out of this malady. This is because the impact of terrorism is devastating and destructive. Everyone is in one way or another. Methods: The study made use of Leonard Berkowitz Frustration Aggression Theory (1989) and Robert Agnew General Strain Theory (GST, 1991) to explain terrorism, insecurity, and criminality in Nigeria. The study employed qualitative study using Key Informant Interview (KII) and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) using the youths as the population or universe. Results: The study concluded that terrorism is universally abhorred and generally seen as an unlawful, barbaric, and inhuman crime. It is a crime against man and society that must not be allowed to strive because it erodes peace, destroys properties, leads to loss of lives, and stampede growth and development. Conclusions: It was recommended in this study that the fight against terrorism should be an all-embracing one. Thus, the Government, parents, citizens, and youth must all be proactive in the fight against terrorism via effective strategize.