General Praise Research Articles

It takes two: Process praise linking trying and success is associated with greater infant persistence.

Process praise (i.e., praise for effort) facilitates childhood persistence. However, less is known about the mechanism by which process praise influences persistence in infancy. Here, we propose that well-timed process praise reinforces the link between effort and success, thus promoting persistence in young children. In Experiment 1, U.S. infants aged 17-18 months old (N = 29; 13 females; Mage = 18 months, 3 days; 76% White) and in Experiment 2, Canadian toddlers aged 17-31 months old (N = 60; 34 females; Mage = 22 months, 17 days; 40% White) participated with caregivers. Across experiments, caregiver process and general praise overlapping temporally with both trying and success related to greater persistence during a dyadic task, while praise offered only during trying or success was not. However, the effects of temporally aligned process praise were more robust than the effects of general praise. Furthermore, process praise which did not correspond to children's actions (i.e., high-volume or randomly dispersed process praise) negatively related to persistence. Thus, these findings demonstrate that young children are responsive to temporal alignment in praise and further suggest that temporal alignment especially in process praise may help form the basis for later mindset models. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Class of How People Learn: An Investigation into Theories of Learning How Praise in Class Affects Students Learning Motivation

By analyzing the case comparison of three different praise methods, this paper compares the most suitable praise strategies for the classroom at the k-12 stage. The research proposal is to introduce the beneficial effects of praise in the classroom through behaviourism and cognitivism and then to compare which kind of praise students respond to using real-world cases in the classroom: general praise targeted praise, and negative statementmost productive in the classroom. The survey method is that three teachers teach a class of 15 to 20 people, and one day is randomly selected each week to count the number of times teachers use different praise methods on average to analyze the cases. The results showed that general praise was more practical at ages K-8, where students were more likely to be praised by their teachers for their behaviour. In addition, the combination of targeted praise and negative statements in grades 8-12 can help students achieve academically.

Further evaluation of general and descriptive praise statements on the acquisition of tacts

AbstractPraise is a consequence that many practitioners use in teaching settings and descriptive praise is often recommended. However, research on descriptive praise has not reliably resulted in faster acquisition compared to general praise. Delivering short praise statements may increase the effectiveness of descriptive praise by only presenting the relevant feature of the feedback (i.e., the target). In the present study, we evaluated general, descriptive, and general plus descriptive praise statements on acquisition of tacts via telehealth with two typically developing toddlers. Results showed that the number of sessions to criterion was similar in all conditions for both participants, which suggests that the contents of praise did not influence learning. This study also builds on the research of praise through the preliminary use of telehealth with toddlers.

An Investigation of Teacher Feedback Types and Characteristics in Senior High School Classes

This paper studies types and characteristics of the teacher classroom feedback through the investigation of 22 classes of 22 senior high school English teachers. Non-participatory observation method was adopted to examine types and characteristics of teacher feedback based on the videos of the 11th National Senior High School English Teaching Demonstration. The purpose of this study is to find out existing problems of teacher feedback so as to improve senior high school English teachers' teaching ability. According to classroom observation and data analysis, the types of the teacher feedback include positive feedback, negative feedback and multiple feedback. The characteristics of the teacher feedback are as follows: among 3 feedback types, positive feedback is the most frequently used one and negative feedback is often used with positive feedback. The existing problems in teachers' feedback are: general feedback including matter-of-fact praise and general praise is often given by teachers; students are often interrupted by teacher feedback; the teacher feedback focuses more on form of student language than on meanings of interaction between teachers and students. In terms of the types, characteristics and problems of teacher feedback, this study gives some suggestions for English teachers in senior high schools to develop their teaching ability of giving feedback.

Middle and high school teachers' praise and reprimand delivery.

This exploratory study expands the literature on teachers' natural use of praise and reprimand, in terms of how teachers deliver praise and reprimand. Sixty-six middle and high school teachers' delivery of praise and reprimand to individual, small groups, and large groups during a 20-min observation were examined. Teachers delivered significantly more general praise (GP) to individual students, rather than small groups or large groups. However, there was no significant difference in teachers' delivery of behavior-specific praise (BSP) to individual, small groups, or large groups of students. Teachers delivered significantly more mild reprimand to individual students compared to small groups; however, no significant differences were found between mild reprimand delivery to individual and large groups of students. Implications and suggestions for future research are offered. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Descriptive versus general praise with and without edibles for acquisition in young children

AbstractPrevious research comparing the effects of descriptive and general praise on the acquisition of skills has yielded mixed outcomes. We attempted to replicate extend previous research by (a) isolating the effects of the different types of praise for acquisition of skills in eight preschool children and (b) determining child preference for the different types of praise. However, only two participants consistently acquired target skills (with negligible differences across the different types of praise); six of the eight participants did not consistently acquire target skills with either type of praise. Therefore, we added edibles to increase the efficacy of praise for these six participants. Results showed that all six participants acquired more skills when edibles were added. Furthermore, two of the six participants for whom we added edibles showed acquisition under particular conditions after a history with edibles. Results of the preference evaluation showed idiosyncratic outcomes across the seven participants with whom it was conducted.

Increasing teachers' use of behavior specific praise via Apple Watch prompting

AbstractThis study evaluated the effects of a teacher prompting procedure to increase teacher behavior specific praise (BSP) using an Apple Watch. Participants included three Head Start general education teachers. An ABAB design across participants was used to examine the effects of Smart Watch‐based prompts on teachers' praise rate. The study consisted of four phases: (a) baseline, (b) teacher praise training and intervention, (c) withdrawal from intervention, and (d) reimplementation of intervention. Implementation of the intervention was associated with increases in both BSP and general praise for all participating teachers. Although averages did not meet the criterion set by the researcher of one statement per minute, these findings suggest a functional relation between implementation of the procedure and increases in teacher praise.

Natural rates of teacher praise in the classroom: A systematic review of observational studies

AbstractPrevious research documents the positive impacts that teacher praise can have on students' behavior in the classroom; positive praise is a reinforcer that improves and maintains appropriate classroom behavior. Identifying current trends in natural rates of praise—praise that occurs in the absence of specific intervention or training—may help teachers become mindful of their own practices. The purpose of this systematic review was to investigate characteristics of published observational studies of teacher‐delivered praise and identify the rate at which teachers delivered praise. We conducted a systematic search of the literature, and included studies published after 2004; 14 studies met our inclusion criteria. The results of this study illustrate that researchers use several different measures to observe and report the frequency of teacher praise. Teachers also delivered general praise (range = 0.04 per min to 67.9 per hour) and behavior‐specific praise (range = 5.9–23.14 per hour) at widely variable rates. Teachers commonly used more general praise compared with behavior‐specific praise. Across studies, we also found inconsistent rates of teacher praise versus reprimands, with some studies reporting higher rates of praise while other studies reported higher rates of reprimands. We discuss implications for teachers and provide recommendations for future research.

Teacher Praise and Reprimand: Examining the Generalizability and Dependability of Observational Estimates

This study examined the generalizability and dependability of observational estimates of middle and high school teachers’ use of praise and reprimands. Frequency of behavior-specific praise, general praise, and total reprimands were collected across 67, 20-min observations that took place during class-wide instruction in general education classrooms. Generalizability theory was used to determine the number of observations needed to obtain dependable estimates of teacher behavior. Behavior-specific praise rates were consistently low. General praise rates were slightly higher and reprimand rates were notably higher and slightly more variable. Total reprimands had the strongest generalizability results and general praise had the weakest. Behavior-specific praise reached an acceptable level of dependability after 15 min, whereas general praise required a 35-min observation, and reprimand only required 5 min. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Potatoes and nation-building: the case of the Spanish omelette

ABSTRACT “Cold, hot, as a snack, as a morning tapa, with onion or without, juicy or compacted (…) the Spanish omelette – with the blessing of the paella and the Iberian ham – (…) shines as our most universal dish”. Found in every bar of Spain and consumed in every household and in every region, the Spanish omelette (tortilla española or tortilla de patatas) has contributed to Spain’s nation-building since the late nineteenth century. Despite its humble origins – which initially slowed down its general praise and acceptance – nationalist elites and nation-state agents used the omelette to promote the “Spanishness” of the Spanish cuisine and to project an image of a highly diverse but united country. Yet, the role of the tortilla in the nation-building process has been largely dismissed by scholars. This article explores how nationalist ideologues have used the tortilla to foster and promote a specific conception of the “Spanish nation” and to overcome a series of obstacles that have hindered its nation-building process since the late nineteenth century. The exploration of the omelette’s uses advances visions of Spain’s nation-building process and its recent history.

Exploring Secondary Teachers’ Actual and Perceived Praise and Reprimand Use

The present study aimed to identify a way for educators to improve the accuracy of their praise and reprimand reflections to ultimately improve their ability to set, monitor, and evaluate their use of praise and reprimand. To do this, teachers’ natural use of praise and reprimand (in the absence of intervention) were compared with their perceived use. A 20-min direct observation was collected from 66 middle and high school teachers to obtain praise and reprimand rates. Following the observation, teachers reported their perceived use of praise and reprimand. A t test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to determine differences between praise and reprimand types. Correlations were used to determine the relation between perceived and actual praise and reprimand use. Statistical results indicated teachers used more general praise (GP) than behavior-specific praise and more mild reprimand than any other reprimand type. Teachers’ actual and perceived use of GP were positively correlated, as were teachers’ actual and perceived use of mild, gestural, and total reprimand. Furthermore, teachers with a greater difference between their actual and perceived praise also had a greater difference between their actual and perceived reprimand use. Future research and implications of these findings are discussed.

Teacher praise to reprimand ratios during small and large group instruction: a video pilot study

Few studies have examined teachers’ natural use of praise and reprimand in the absence of training, possibly due to the challenges of live data collection. This study sought to determine the feasibility of using technology to examine teachers’ use of praise and reprimand during class-wide and small group instruction in four elementary classrooms. In both settings, teachers used more general praise than behavior-specific praise and these differences were statistically significant. No differences were found between reprimand type, regardless of instructional context. During class-wide instruction, praise was delivered more frequently to individual students. No significant difference in praise or reprimand rates were observed between instructional contexts. Implications for training teachers to increase their praise-to-reprimand use and future research via video data collection are offered.

Historical Dictionaries in Their Paratextual Context ed. by Roderick McConchie and Jukka Tyrkkö

Reviewed by: Historical Dictionaries in Their Paratextual Context ed. by Roderick McConchie and Jukka Tyrkkö Lisa Berglund (bio) Historical Dictionaries in Their Paratextual Context edited by Roderick McConchie and Jukka Tyrkkö. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2018. Pp.xii + 318. $114.99. ISBN: 978-3-11-057286-5. Paratexts—a term coined by Gérard Genette to describe the "undefined zone" that surrounds the principal text of a book—include title pages, dedications, illustrations, notes, bindings, marginalia, and a legion of other materials, original or adscititious, drafted by authors, imposed by printers, or added by readers. To date, most scholarship on the paratexts of dictionaries has focused on illustrations, notably the work of Michael Hancher and Thora van Male. In addition, Lindsay Rose Russell has analyzed the dedications to women in early modern dictionaries, and there have been studies of dictionary marginalia by well-known writers. Historical Dictionaries in their Paratextual Context is therefore a welcome contribution to this growing field of study. Ten of its essays examine monolingual and bilingual English dictionaries published between the sixteenth and the eighteenth centuries, while two address the Oxford English Dictionary. In their introduction, editors Roderick McConchie and Jukka Tyrkkö "postulate an anthropotext of books—the human cultural context by which they are surrounded, embedded in and impacted by, and [which] might include readers, collectors, and annotators." (vii) (Couldn't "users" be added to this list, in deference to the peculiar ways in which dictionaries and human beings interact?) Some contributors to this volume employ the editors' extended concept of the paratext, exploring the human scene in which dictionaries find themselves rather than focusing specifically on the printed or annotated page. Frederic T. Dolezal and Ward J. Risvold, for example, conduct a close reading of title pages combined with biographical research into the lives of nine booksellers and printers, and conclude that "the preponderance of evidence points to Anne Maxwell as the most likely printer" of John Wilkins's 1668 Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language (53). In her essay "Subscribers and Patrons: Jacob Serenius and His Dictionarium Anglo-Svethico-Latinum 1734," Seija Tiisala uses the subscriber list for this dictionary to explore the social networks of among Nordic and English readers. The diverse supporters of this trilingual lexicon, she concludes, hailed from the worlds of commerce, diplomacy, the arts, and the church, as well as including scholars and [End Page 286] collectors. Her descriptive essay throws new light on cosmopolitan aspects of eighteenth-century British society, particularly regarding Nordic affiliations. Another contribution that reveals unexpected connections between English lexicography and a wider European readership is "Printed English Dictionaries in the National Library of Russia to the Mid-Seventeenth Century," by Olga E. Frolova and Roderick McConchie. Admittedly a preliminary study, this essay asks thoughtful questions about how national libraries (and their lexicographical holdings) are assembled and what the National Library of Russia's dictionaries may suggest about early modern international enthusiasms for particular books, such as John Florio's Florio His Firste Fruites (1578). Of the essays that examine paratexts more directly, especially engaging is Giovanni Iamartino's "'A Hundred Visions and Revisions': Malone's Annotations to Johnson's Dictionary." Iamartino begins by neatly observing of responses to Johnson's monumental work that whereas most praise was vague and perfunctory, usually and simply complimenting Johnson on his marvelous achievement, unfavorable critics often led frontal attacks, magnifying the work's defects and focussing on specific weaknesses. (115–16) (A university professor myself, I am chastened by this diagnosis and have resolved to be more cautious in my allotment of vague praise and precise blame when commenting on student essays.) Iamartino then focuses on the general praise and concrete criticism embedded in Edmond Malone's nearly 3,000 annotations to his copy of the three-volume Dublin quarto edition of the Dictionary. Malone's goal, he argues, was "to counter the steady corruption of the Dictionary by greedy booksellers since Johnson's death" (118). Iamartino is preparing a full edition of Malone's annotations, and this essay "focuses on the 529 annotations which cover the A-E section of the Dictionary" (120). The annotations include new words and significations, new illustrative quotations, and...

The Psalms as Christian Praise: A Historical Commentary

The Psalms as Christian Praise: A Historical Commentary

Improving Access to Justice: Do Contingency Fees Really Work?

While not touted as a universal panacea for access problems, contingency fees have received general praise as an important and justice-improving initiative. By back-loading the payment of legal fees, the assumption is that the interests of clients and litigants will be better served. I challenge that received wisdom. While the rise of contingency fee agreements between lawyers and clients has increased the number of people who can afford lawyers and make successful claims, the more challenging issue is whether that increase is being achieved at too high a price to clients and litigants – while more people are able to bring a case, which they could not otherwise have done, they will be receiving far less than they might actually be entitled to. In short, do contingency fees work as much or more to the advantage of lawyers than clients? I suggest not.

A Comparison of Two Group Contingencies on Teachers’ Use of Behavior-Specific Praise

The present study evaluated the effects of two reinforcement contingencies on teacher use of behavior-specific praise (BSP) in the classroom. An alternating treatments design was used to compare the implementation of both an independent and interdependent contingency to increase frequency of BSP delivery. Four general education elementary school teachers and their students participated. Teachers’ use of BSP and general praise, as well as, behavior-specific and general reprimands were evaluated. Data were also collected on students’ levels of academically engaged and disruptive behaviors. Both the independent and interdependent conditions resulted in higher frequencies of BSP and reduced the use of both general and behavior-specific reprimands. Student levels of academic engagement increased while disruption decreased across both contingencies. Results of the present study are discussed in terms of related literature and implications for applied practice.

An evaluation of praise as a reinforcer for preschoolers' behavior.

Behavior analysts and educators often recommend using praise, particularly descriptive praise, despite mixed empirical findings to support this recommendation. We evaluated the effectiveness of praise as a reinforcer during a reinforcer assessment using known tasks with preschoolers in Experiment 1. Praise functioned as a reinforcer for 2 of 6 participants; the remaining 4 participants required additional reinforcers (edibles) to show a reinforcement effect. We then compared the effectiveness of descriptive versus general praise for acquisition of unknown tacts and assessed participants' preference for the different types of praise for 4 participants from Experiment 1. Results are discussed within the context of the importance of determining individual efficacy and preference for praise.

‘Good job!’: unpacking praise practices of high- and low-quality early childhood teachers in China

ABSTRACT Aiming to inform teaching practices and understand cultural differences, we examined praise practices of high- and low-quality preschool teachers in China. As part of a broader project, we purposefully selected three high-quality and three low-quality teachers based upon their Pre-K CLASS ratings and self-reports, and conducted qualitative analysis of their class videos. The two groups gave similar amount of praise, but extremely high or low numbers were observed among the low-quality teachers. The high-quality teachers applied specific praise more while the low-quality teachers used general praise more. Although both groups used praise heavily in whole group activities, the high-quality teachers utilized praise more in small group activities, while the low-quality teachers used praise more in transitions. Additionally, the high-quality teachers used praise more effectively to provide emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support. Finally, the Chinese teachers praised their students substantially less than American or Australian teachers in other published studies.

"The Soul Exceeds Its Circumstances": The Later Poetry of Seamus Heaney ed. by Eugene O'Brien

Reviewed by: "The Soul Exceeds Its Circumstances": The Later Poetry of Seamus Heaney ed. by Eugene O'Brien Hunter Dukes (bio) "THE SOUL EXCEEDS ITS CIRCUMSTANCES": THE LATER POETRY OF SEAMUS HEANEY, edited by Eugene O'Brien. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2016. xiv + 403 pp. $50.00 cloth, ebook. "Late as it was,/The early bird still sang," writes Seamus Heaney in "The Tollund Man in Springtime," a sentiment that reverberates through a new edited collection on the poet's later works: Seeing Things, The Spirit Level, Electric Light, District and Circle, and Human Chain.1 These essays examine elements of a poetic landscape that only emerge at dusk but also qualities present since the beginning, clarified through age. The volume is justified by Heaney's own interest in "lateness." As Neil Corcoran observes (108-09), the poet-critic read the final works of Robert Lowell, Patrick Kavanagh, W. H. Auden, and Dylan Thomas through a similar sense of periodization. Many of the essays lapse into a personal mode, saturated with elegy for the poet's passing. Evaluation of Heaney's verse is often preceded by a general praise of character. Eugene O'Brien's introduction sets the tone for this blurring of life and literary output. Thus [End Page 459] we are informed that the poet "was one of the most revered literary figures in the world," whose work is studied at the "very highest level within the academy," forming one of "the greatest collections of lyric poetry in the English language" (1, 3). The nouns Nobel, Harvard, and Oxford recirculate: superlatives abound. There is much to laud. While some essays inhabit a soft border between literary journalism and academic research, Magdalena Kay's dexterous "Death and Everyman: Imagining a 'Not Unwelcoming Emptiness'" (49-70) could stand confidently in either forum. Helen Vendler's "Squarings" (71-85) is memorable for other reasons, moving seamlessly between Renaissance ars memoriae and Heaney's adoption of the douzain form, a twelve-line poetic stanza. One seam does appear: she writes about the "shock" of Seeing Things (84), an argument that turns on Heaney's homage to "Cold Mountain," the English translation for the name of Han-Shan (alternatively spelled Hanshan), a reclusive seventh- or eighth-century Chinese poet who meant a great deal to Gary Snyder and Jack Kerouac; Heaney met the former writer at a party in Berkeley, a character he could imagine "hunkering under a stone wall on the Aran Islands."2 This thread normalizes Heaney's allusion, which becomes a way of squaring "the California distance"—which Vendler herself luminously connects to these poems in Seamus Heaney—with the poet's "Irish memory bank."3 Moynagh Sullivan's essay on Bracha Ettinger and the "Matrixial Gaze" (279-99) refreshes a book heavy on close reading and only occasionally sacrifices clarity for jargon. Chapters by Meg Tyler and Bernard O'Donoghue focus on genetic revision and publication history: an approach thematically warranted in this case, as both scholars reveal how the "later" Heaney honed his earlier efforts. It is inevitable, in an edited collection that exceeds four hundred pages, for there to be repetition and redoubling. Reading the volume cover-to-cover reveals a frustrating dimension of this scholarly form—not the editor's fault, per se, but a missed opportunity nevertheless. I wanted O'Brien's discussion of poetic gifts (342) to connect back to Henry Hart's "Seamus Heaney's Gifts" (219-238), a remarkable essay on "offerings" in Heaney's life and art (wide-ranging, but spotty: Marcel Mauss and Lewis Hyde get air-time, but other thinkers about "gifts" are muted). Elmer Kennedy-Andrews has a wonderful paragraph about bookcases in "The Reluctant Transatlanticist," an essay on Heaney and America, that recalls Michael R. Molino on books and bookshops in Heaney's "Route 110" and Joyce's "Wandering Rocks" and "Araby" (189, 102-04).4 Some details chafe an attentive reader. We learn that Heaney's tercets are inspired by Dante so often that it feels like penance; the Sibyl of Cumae is named with startling frequency, but her presence remains scattered like leaves on the wind; Heaney's parents die over and...

Effects of the Teacher Versus Students Game on Teacher Praise and Student Behavior

The Teacher versus Students Game is a variation of the Good Behavior Game (Barrish et al. in J Appl Behav Anal 2:119–124, 1969. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1969.2-119 ) in which students compete against the teacher to earn points and win the game. Students earn points when they follow rules, whereas the teacher earns points when they do not. The purpose of this study was to examine whether the game decreased students’ off-task behaviors while increasing teachers’ use of behavior-specific praise. Participants were five teachers and fifteen students (some with disabilities and some without) across five fourth and fifth grade elementary school general education classrooms, who were identified by their teachers as engaging in frequent off-task behavior. Results indicated that the game decreased off-task behavior for all students. The game also increased teachers’ use of behavior-specific praise statements, minimally increased general praise statements, and decreased corrective statements for all but one of the teachers.