General Music Classroom Research Articles

Collective free improvisation in the Flemish general music classroom: Probing student’s lived experience through flow

The aim of this study is to explore the lived experience of students ( N = 1,282) in general education engaging in collective free improvisation (CFI). Fourteen music teachers implemented a CFI lesson in 69 classes in Flanders (Belgium). Lived experience was measured using a Dutch version of the Flow State Scale for Occupational Tasks. This scale reflects the degree of Sense of Control, Positive Emotional Experience and Absorption by Concentrating. In addition, teachers’ reflections were mapped by means of an online survey. Overall scores on the 3 dimensions of the Flow scale averaged greater than or equal to 5 (7-point Likert scale). Results show a difference in total flow between students who already played an instrument and those who did not. Students who play an instrument score significantly higher on the factor ‘Sense of Control’. Conversely, the flow scores on the factors ‘Absorption by Concentration’ and ‘Positive Emotional Experience’ do not differ between instrumentalists and non-instrumentalists. Given the relatively high flow scores, we conclude that this type of musical engagement can be used for instrumentalists as well as non-instrumentalists. Although CFI was a new experience for the teachers, they indicated to continue using it in the future.

Supporting Music Literacy for Students with Special Needs in the Elementary General Music Classroom: A Design Case of a Digital Tool

Supporting Music Literacy for Students with Special Needs in the Elementary General Music Classroom: A Design Case of a Digital Tool

The Progression of Technology Integration in the Music Classroom to Support Student Engagement: Part I-Using Google Keep

Pre-pandemic, technology integration into music lessons was helpful but not a necessity for effectively teaching elementary music. Those who believed technology integration was important for student engagement, as well as those comfortable with their technological skills, were experimenting with tools on an interactive board or through a website within a whole group. This article presents solutions to the challenges of integrating technology in the general music classroom setting. Specifically, this article explains a music activity using Google Keep, a note and list application not typically used to teach music, and the steps for integrating technology and providing feedback using student discourse.

Music Streaming in the P–12 Music Classroom: A Scoping Review

The purpose of this scoping review was to synthesize literature regarding audio streaming in the P–12 music classroom by identifying the varied uses, recommendations for equitable access, and gaps in the knowledge base. A total of 23 publications met the criteria for inclusion. Ensemble and general music classrooms in elementary, middle, and high school contexts were represented in the literature with exemplification of concepts, genres, styles, and techniques evident as the most common usage. YouTube, Spotify, and Pandora were frequently referenced as streaming platforms. Authors cited inexpensive or free platforms and ubiquity of access most frequently when referencing equity and streaming. Most authors made no reference to potential access impediments. I identified gaps in the literature, including the uses of streamed music in jazz classrooms, performer compensation, diversity of content, barriers to student access, potential solutions to equitable access issues, and music perception differences for those with limited access.

Applications of Self-Determination Theory in the General Music Classroom

Student motivation is frequently an issue in general music classrooms, and many long-standing theories designed to increase motivation have the opposite effect. This article introduces Self-Determination Theory, first developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, as a theory of human motivation. A key element of Self-Determination Theory is the concept of three basic human psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. This article details each need and provides suggestions for direct applications to the general music classroom. Through the fulfillment of these needs, teachers can encourage and support a students’ engagement in musical activities and personal growth.

Restorative Justice and Classroom Management in Elementary General Music Classrooms

The purpose of this pilot study was to examine elementary general music teachers’ familiarity with, agreement with, and perceptions of restorative justice practices. Participants ( N = 49) included practicing elementary general music teachers who were members of the California Music Educators Association, the Florida Music Educators Association, the Missouri Music Educators Association, the New England Orff chapter, and an Orff chapter in Southern California. Findings indicated that participants were moderately familiar with their perceived ideas of restorative justice. They reported moderately high levels of agreement with a restorative justice ideology but held largely negative perceptions regarding the approach and its implementation in elementary music classrooms. Results suggest that although many elementary music teachers generally agree with a restorative justice ideology, they face challenges in implementing restorative justice–based approaches in their classrooms. Administrative support, professional development opportunities, and future research on the topic are needed.

Assessing Student Compositions

Many teachers believe in the importance of compositional and creative tasks but don’t find the time to assess those tasks and provide feedback to students. This column encourages teachers to determine why, what, and how assessments will be given. By planning out why (formative or summative), what kind of task will be assessed, and choosing a tool for how assessments will be given, teachers can maximize the amount of feedback they give to students and help students grow as composers. This column provides teachers with solid strategies and methods for implementing student composition assessments in general music classrooms.

Freedom Highway: Lessons in Courage and Justice From Rhiannon Giddens

General music class is a space for students to engage in honest dialogue and reflection about the societal, cultural, and historical contexts of music, even when the subject matter is difficult. General music teachers can support students by opening “courageous conversations” about race, culture, and complex histories as they intersect with meaningful repertoire. The purpose of this article is to provide music educators with repertoire ideas and resources to assist in the process. Selections from Rhiannon Giddens’ album Freedom Highway are explored as a point of entry for dialogue about race, culture, courage, and justice in the secondary general music classroom. Songs about the Civil War, the Civil Rights era, and the Black Lives Matter movement are linked to inquiry-based strategies and the national music standards.

SEL, Mindfulness, and the Art of General Music Education

General music education, if practiced with intentionality, has the potential to be a passionate act of hope with tremendous implications for the academic, social, and emotional needs of students. General music specialists have the capacity to expose students to the very best parts of life itself: joy, playfulness, respect, gratitude, creativity, persistence, resilience, curiosity, and so much more. The general music teacher is well positioned to help students develop relationships with long-held human insights and best practices in living an art filled, meaningful life. A few key skills students can learn in the general music classroom include cooperation, communication, positive peer interactions, recognition and support of the rights of others, dependability, responsibility, focus of personal attention, impulse control, delayed gratification, and acceptance of consequences. All 21st-century life skills that are integral to education and human development.

Singing World Music: Issues and Ideas for Culturally Responsive Teaching

Implementing culturally responsive teaching is helpful when singing songs in different languages in the general music classroom. Two main hurdles exist when planning music lessons that include songs in different languages—maintaining musical authenticity and overcoming language barriers. One must then find a way to balance an aim for authenticity while also meeting instructional objectives. To help with the planning and execution of culturally responsive lessons that use songs from different countries, the author has included lesson plan examples and music notations for two types of songs in different languages—traditional and translated. There is also a table with online sources for world music.

The Concept of Cultural Humility as It Relates to Instructional Practices in the General Music Classroom

A framework of cultural humility includes three main tenets: (a) commitment to lifelong, critical self-reflection; (b) recognition and mitigation of power imbalances; and (c) accountability to individuals and institutions. In this article, I aim at applying the concept of cultural humility to frame my analysis of musical diversity in music education. Through a cultural humility lens, music teachers may acknowledge their own beliefs, values, biases, and prejudices in relation to diverse musics. A commitment to lifelong introspection through self-reflection and critique may help teachers continue to investigate new ways to redress power imbalances inherent in music education, as well as build their relationships with students and communities bidirectionally.

Supporting Students With Specific Learning Disabilities: Strategies for the General Music Classroom

Of the more than 6 million students with disabilities ages 6 through 21 receiving services under the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 37.1% (more than 2 million) of students have specific learning disabilities. Given the large number of students with specific learning disabilities, it is likely that these students are attending music classes alongside their same-aged peers. This article provides general information about specific learning disabilities, as well as strategies teachers can use when including students with specific learning disabilities in their inclusive classrooms.

Be Intentional: Anti-Racist Music, SEL, and DEI Alignments

A general music classroom alignment with social & emotional learning (SEL) and diversity, equity, & inclusion (DEI) can, if implemented with commitment and purpose, help promote student success in important ways by acknowledging systemic inequities, identifying personal bias, and actively interrupting obstacles to equity. SEL alone will not solve long-standing, deep-seated inequities in the education system or society. This column shares insight as to how SEL & DEI alignments in the music classroom have the potential to cultivate knowledge, beliefs, practices, and relationships that can improve lives in communities. The piece encourages music teachers to steadily work to improve practices and ensure that efforts are equitable and connect to larger, more universal goals in education.

Giving Students the Power: Rehearsal Strategies for General Music

Who is in charge of rehearsing music? Traditionally, it has been teachers who guide the music learning, but the National Core Arts Standards ask that students be the ones who identify and select rehearsal strategies to refine musical performances. However, these standards do not define what rehearsal strategies are, so this article digs into research on practicing and rehearsing to create a set of rehearsal strategies applicable to a general music classroom.

Behavioral Strategies for Trauma-Informed Elementary General Music Education for Students With Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: A Review of the Literature

Elementary general music teachers encounter challenging behaviors in the music classroom when teaching students with emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD), which require prevention and response. In this article, I reviewed literature on pedagogical strategies and interventions for students with EBD in the elementary general music classroom. The review is organized as follows: (a) introduction and process, (b) overview of trauma, (c) overview of EBD, (d) principles of trauma-informed care, and (e) summary and recommendations. Through this review, I present current knowledge on best practices for understanding and framing the unique behavioral needs of special learners with EBD through a trauma-informed lens.

Promoting Gender Inclusivity in General Music (part 2): Considerations for Using Technology

This article is the second in a series intended to assist general music teachers in creating gender-inclusive music environments. Technology can be used in general music classrooms to support learning and to extend musical creativity. Previous authors have shared ideas that can help general music teachers use technology in ways that promote more gender-inclusive environments by helping all learners effectively use technology. The purpose of this article is to help general music teachers identify and incorporate strategies for using technology in their classrooms that support students of all genders. Specific strategies, such as purposeful role models, student groupings, and family support, as well as resources are included. Through thoughtful and purposeful integration informed by relevant literature and research, technology can be used to develop children’s musicianship.

Group Drumming as Conduit to Enhanced Self and Community Relationships

The purpose of this column is to promote the use of group drumming as an important access point to improved self and community relationships that naturally develops the competencies of student self-awareness and social awareness in the general music classroom. Group drumming is a far-reaching activity with the capacity to improve and transform many of the traumatic life experiences endured by our students. The promise of group drumming to enhance individual well-being while simultaneously developing an inclusive community environment is a readily available tool within reach of almost every general music teacher. The approach can be used to enhance self-awareness in the moment, reduce anxiety, and provide access to successful experiences for students. Group drumming exposes participants to new ways of understanding themselves and others around them while creating important entry points to the SEL (social and emotional learning) competencies of both social awareness and self-awareness.

Mindfulness Access Points in General Music: Singing, Breathing, and Self-Awareness

The purpose of this column is to promote the use of focused breathing and singing as access points to improved student self-awareness in the general music classroom. Singing is a holistic activity with the healing potential to improve and transform many traumatic life experiences endured by our students. Similarly, mindfulness breathwork is a holistic approach used to enhance self-awareness in the moment and can reduce anxiety. Both pursuits have the potential to help students overcome difficulties of fear, stress, and anxiety. Both practices expose participants to new ways of understanding themselves and the world around them while creating important access points to mindfulness and self-awareness.

Transformational Learning Strategies for the Secondary General Music Classroom

This article discusses transformative learning in secondary general music (SGM), while considering students’ transitions from elementary to secondary music classes. SGM is uniquely situated for expanded pedagogies and musicianship, yet a gap in music activities persists between elementary and secondary classes and between home and school. The authors suggest that autonomous learning opportunities can foster ownership and meaning making for students toward lifelong musicianship as well as toward transformative learning. Three overlapping aspects of transformative SGM are discussed: skill-building, exploring contextual understandings, and making time and space for creativity and ownership. Emergent curricula that take students’ interests and experiences into account is encouraged. The authors advocate for projects that encourage collaboration beyond the school walls to foster purposeful connections to prior learning and personal music growth.

Developing 21st-Century Musicianship: Tablet-based Music Production in the General Music Classroom

Increased availability of tablets at home and in classrooms provides educators access to a powerful tool for music instruction. Music production lessons on tablets offer alternate approaches to developing music literacies while teaching valuable technology skills. These activities are ideal for general music education because they align with contemporary music practices and are adaptable to a variety of learning environments (in person, remote, and hybrid). This article will present a model for tablet-based music production instruction in the general music classroom that aligns with the National Core Arts Standards and accompanying process components grounded in five essential skills: sequencing, recording, editing, effects processing, and mixing.