General Directorate Of Forestry Research Articles

Comparison of diverse machine learning algorithms for forest fire susceptibility mapping in Antalya, Türkiye

Antalya is one of the provinces with the highest number of forest fires in Türkiye. In 2021, 278 forest fires occurred within the administrative boundaries of Antalya Regional Directorate of Forestry. The main objective of this study is to produce forest fire susceptibility (FFS) maps of Antalya province using machine learning (ML) models. In addition to forest fire inventory data, 16 factors, including topographic, environmental, meteorological, and human-driven, were used in the study. Inventory data included 2166 fire ignition points from the General Directorate of Forestry. 70 % of the inventory dataset was used to train the ML models and 30 % to validate the models. Overall accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score, and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC-ROC) approaches were considered as validation metrics. FFS maps of Antalya were produced using stand-alone ML algorithms, K-Nearest Neighbors, and Support Vector Machines, as well as tree-based Conditional Inference Trees (CTREE), Random Forest (RF), Gradient Boosting Machines (GBM), and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) algorithms. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study using the CTREE algorithm for forest fire susceptibility mapping. Therefore, this study is important for the related literature. The validation results revealed that the XGBoost model outperformed other models. It is thought that the FFS map produced using the XGBoost model will guide forest engineers, wildland firefighting teams, and firefighters to minimize damage and control forest fires.

Stand Analysis and Distribution Areas of European Aspen (Populus tremula L.) Forests in Türkiye

The aim of the study is to analyze the studies that have been done and need to be done on the general characteristics, distribution areas, and silviculture of European aspen stands naturally distributed in Türkiye. In the study, data obtained from the General Directorate of Forestry, Department of Forest Administration, and Planning for the year 2019 was used as the material. With these data, the spatial extent of European aspen stands in Türkiye was determined. Based on the obtained data, pure stands of European aspen, primarily in the regions where they have the most extensive spatial distribution, were examined on-site. Additionally, by evaluating the planning data in comparison with the current situation, European aspen stands were analyzed from a silvicultural perspective. The study determined that the total extent of European aspen forests in Türkiye is 278,013.7 hectares. Of the European aspen stands in Türkiye, 40.4% are in Elazığ, 17.3% in Erzurum, 15.7% in Trabzon, 11.4% in Kayseri, and 7.5% in Giresun Regional Directorates of Forestry. Furthermore, 92.3% of European aspen stands are located within these five regional directorates. Moreover, in Türkiye, 34,916.6 hectares of pure aspen stands and 13,745.6 hectares of stands dominated by aspen exhibit degraded qualities. Depending on the developmental stages, the largest spatial distribution in both pure stands (8,886.3 ha) and stands dominated by aspen (6,071.3 ha) has been identified in the ab developmental stages. When examining the developmental stages of European aspen in Türkiye, it's generally observed that young European aspen stands prevail. The management objective of same-aged pure and mixed aspen forests should be redefined according to both the succession stages and habitat conditions. In stands with ecological functions, protection and moderate interventions must be made, and in stands with production functions, necessary tending interventions must be made on time and sustainability must be ensured.

Planning Principles of Grazing Management in Goat Breeding in Massive Forest Fire Areas (Case Study: Manavgat Forest Enterprise)

Turkey's forest area is approximately 23.1 million ha, covering 29.44% of the country's surface area. About 20 thousand villages and 7 million forest villagers live in these areasThe vital activities of forest villagers, whose main livelihood is agriculture and animal husbandry, face severe damage from forest fires. The "Regulation on Procedures and Principles on Animal Grazing in the Forests and in the Grassland, Plateau, and Winter-Passage," published by the General Directorate of Forestry (GDoF), has been entered into force in 2012. According to this regulation, the areas where grazing is prohibited and allowed are specified. According to the GDoF of Forestry, sheep and cattle are grazed systematically in forest areas in 53.1% of our country's forest areas. However, it is still being determined what kind of grazing system will be implemented for forest villagers since all areas around the forest villages are burned in massive forest fires. The study aims to determine the principles of grazing plan and management for the forest villages of Antalya province Manavgat district after the great forest fire. The original data of the study area consists of fire data in the Manavgat district, forest management plan data, and forest village data damaged by fire at various levels. Considering these data, The principles of planning on how to use approaches such as suitability analysis, SWOT and RWOT analysis, and Logit model for functional grazing management and planning of goat breeders have been determined. The most critical problem forest villagers face after the massive forest fires are the complete restriction of sustainable goat breeding. It is necessary to decide on a new grazing plan, and management approaches for such areas to maintain life practices despite legal regulations. This study established a new grazing plan, management opportunities, and principles.

Spatial Area Distribution of Oaks According to Different Selected Parameters in Türkiye

Considering the forest management plans prepared recently, the Oaks, which were previously represented by a single nickname (Quercus spp), are now separated based on species. Although there are forest management plans using old pseudonyms that are still in use, plans that have expired are being renewed considering Oak species distinction. There is no study that provides up-to-date information on the spatial distribution, mixture status, and stands’ distribution according to age, site and canopy classes. However, such studies provide useful information at many levels, from sectorial planning for example to revealing honey production efficiency.
 
 In this study, the spatial distribution of Oaks according to the different parameters mentioned above was examined by using the spatial database obtained from the General Directorate of Forestry. ArcGIS 10.8TM software was used to query the attribute data and present it in tables and figures. According to the results obtained, there are a total of 9.05 million ha of Oak stands. Within this, 6.116.992,7 ha (67,6%) are pure or mixed within Oak species, and 2.928.775,9 ha (32,4%) are mixed. Pure and mix stands within Oak species have 2.075.508,4 ha of productive (33,9%) and 4.041.484,3 ha degraded (66,1%). Moreover, 4.986.288,1 ha (81,5%) are managed as high forest and 1.130.704,6 ha (18,5%) are managed as coppice. Considering their developmental stage and crown closure (excluding degraded stands), 94,5% of those were less than 20 cm in dbh (diameter at breast height), and 44,1% of them having more than 70% of the cover. As conclusion, it is recommended that Oaks should be given with mentioned parameters, when publishing forestry statistics.

Uzaktan Algılama Teknikleri ile Orman Yangınının Neden Olduğu Hasarın Tayin Edilmesi

Forest fires are the leading natural disasters that endanger the living and lifeless environment in forest ecosystem. Every year, millions of forested areas burn out and Turkey is one of the countries most affected by the forest fires. In this study, forest fire started near Karabaglar was investigated. Using Landsat 8 satellite images, fire area was detected by using five different remote sensing indexing methods (dNDVI, dNBR, dNBRT, dBAI, RBR) were used and the fire area is mapped. Fire intensity was calculated and related map is then obtained. Thus, burn severity distribution in the region was estimated and shown as the burn severity map. As a result of the analysis, it is found that the most convenient results come from the RBR analyses with a 99% of consistency when they are compared with the burn severity data obtained in the field by the General Directorate of Forestry. The remote sensing technique has also demonstrated its ability to distinguish damage severity levels, even including undamaged sections in an entire forest fire damage zone, in a way that cannot be completely done in a field work.

An innovative tool for mapping forest fire risk and danger: case studies from eastern Mediterranean

ABSTRACT Forest fires are one of the most important factors for forest ecosystem and cause ecosystem destruction such as decreasing forest area, biodiversity in the Mediterranean region. Türkiye located in Mediterranean region is exposed to hundreds of fires every year, which damage forest. Mapping forest fire risk and danger constitutes an important basis for preventing fire damages. Geographical Information System is used for mapping forest fire risk and making the accurate and fast decision. This study is designed to develop a GIS-based decision support systems (DSS) to produce a forest fire risk and danger map for Türkiye. DSS uses topography, stand structure and anthropogenic factors for mapping forest fire risk and danger. DSS was developed using the C-sharp (C#) programming language with the help of Add-in in the ArcGIS. DSS has been successfully tested on case study sites in Kozan and Milas Forest Enterprises in Türkiye. In conclusion, the DSS has contributed to the forest managers to fight forest fire effectively. This study will make an important contribution to both the General Directorate of Forestry, which is in the position of implementing it, and the scientific community.

YANGIN HELİKOPTERİ PLATFORMLARININ BURSA BÖLGESİNDEKİ KONUMLARININ DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ

In Turkey, the General Directorate of Forestry (GDF) utilizes helicopters in various forestry activities such as firefighting, forest protection, wildlife management, shipping, and other activities. In firefighting activities, mostly Russian-designed “Mil Mi-8MTV-1” series helicopters are rented by the GDF during the fire season. These fire helicopters are designed to carry up to 20 people and 2.5 tons of water with a special bucket attached underneath. In this study, it was aimed to evaluate the location of the fire helicopter platforms in the border of Bursa Forestry Regional Directorate (FRD). In the solution process, the areas reached by the fire helicopters in the critical response time was determined using proximity analysis in ArcGIS. Accessible areas were also found for productive forest and degraded forest separately. The results indicated that 85.97 % of the total area of FRD was reached by the fire helicopter within the critical response time while it was 84.06 % for the forested areas. In terms of fire sensitivity degrees, 79.18 % of the first degree sensitive forests were accessed within the critical response time, while all of the second and third degree sensitive forests were reached on time. On the other hand, the accessible forest areas were 85.61 % and 81.21 % for productive forest and degraded forest. These results suggested that location of the fire helicopter platforms should be re-evaluate and possible new platforms should be located in Bursa FRD in order to improve the efficiency of the helicopter fleet and access the forest area in the critical response time. In this process, GIS techniques should be employed by the fire managers to evaluate the optimum locations for the fire helicopter platforms.

PERCEPTIONS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL 4TH GRADE STUDENTS ABOUT ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Environmental problems, which are on the agenda of the whole world recently, have made environmental education compulsory. The gradual decrease of resources, global warming, climate change, environmental problems such as the melting of glaciers, the development of technology, factors such as the more frequent use of ready-made packaged food have allowed environmental pollution and related problems to come to light more frequently. Societies that have adopted that having healthy environmental conditions are a human right have higher levels of development compared to other countries. The most important task in raising individuals who are sensitive to environmental problems falls on primary schools. The aim of this study is to reveal the perceptions of primary school 4th grade students about environmental problems and environmental education. In accordance with this purpose thirty-six primary school 4th grade students were reached and interviewed with a semi-structured interview form. Interview results were analyzed through descriptive analysis. As a result, it has been revealed that the students see the environment as a nature, tree, life, greenery and the world. It has been concluded that there is water scarcity, nature pollution, water pollution and cutting trees is an environmental problem. It has been concluded that as an institution TEMA (Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion), the Ministry of Environment, Urban Planning and Climate Change, the General Directorate of Forestry, Çevko (Environmental Protection and Packaging Waste Recovery and Recycling Foundation), the Ministry of National Education have a duty to be sensitive to the environment and the whole humanity as a person. In order to solve environmental problems, it has been concluded that people have duties such as saving water, keeping the environment clean, protecting nature, planting trees, collecting garbage after picnic, separating those that will go for recycling, using electricity economically, using electric vehicles instead of gasoline vehicles. Related to the environment, it has been concluded that water related painting competitions were held in schools, trees were planted there were recycling bins and environmental boards were prepared. Regarding environmental education, it has been concluded that trees can be planted in schools, painting, poetry competitions can be organized, water saving can be made, recycling bins can be increased and playgrounds can be made of grass and these are desired to be done.

COMPARISON OF WESTERN BLACK SEA AND EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN FOREST PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES IN TERMS OF RAW MATERIAL PREFERENCES

Dünyada nüfusun hızlı bir şekilde artması ve sanayileşme, doğal kaynakların kullanımında artışa sebep olmaktadır. Buna bağlı olarak orman kaynakları ve orman ürünlerine olan ihtiyaç da artış göstermektedir. Türkiye’de orman alanlarının mevcut yüzdesi (%27.5), birçok ülkenin yüzölçümünden fazladır. Çalışma alanlarından Batı Karadeniz Bölgesi, orman varlığı açısından oldukça zengin (% 64) bir yöredir. Diğer çalışma alanında (Doğu Akdeniz) bu değer % 40 dolayındadır. Söz konusu alanların orman varlığı ve ağaç türleri bakımından sahip olduğu çeşitlilik, ilgili yörelerde tesis edilen orman ürünleri endüstrilerinin farklılaşmasına neden olmuştur. Bu tespitler doğrultusunda, bu çalışmasının amacı, Batı Karadeniz ve Doğu Akdeniz orman ürünleri endüstrilerinde tercih edilen hammadde kaynakları ve temel karakteristiklerini araştırmak ve bir biri ile kıyaslamak olarak belirlenmiştir. Bu amaçla çalışmada, Batı Karadeniz (Bartın, Bolu, Düzce, Karabük, Kastamonu, Zonguldak) ve Doğu Akdeniz (Adana, Gaziantep, Hatay, Kahramanmaraş, Kilis, Mersin, Osmaniye) illeri orman ürünleri işletmelerine hammadde ile ilgili olarak anket çalışması uygulanmıştır. Verilerin analizi için SPSS veri analiz programı kullanılmıştır. Yapılan anket sonuçları, Orman Ürünleri işletmecilerinin en fazla ilgi gösterdiği faaliyet alanlarının Batı Karadeniz’de kereste endüstrisi (% 36), Doğu Akdeniz’de ise mobilya sektörü (% 42) olduğunu gösterdi. Yine, en çok tercih edilen iki hammaddenin Batı Karadeniz’de çam (% 29) ve kayın (% 25), Doğu Akdeniz’de ise çam (% 31) ve meşe (% 20) olduğu anlaşıldı. Analizler, Batı Karadeniz ve Doğu Akdeniz orman ürünleri endüstrilerinin en çok hammadde temin ettiği kaynağın sırası ile % 51 ve % 57 oranlarında Orman Genel Müdürlüğü olduğunu ortaya koydu. Aynı zamanda, çalışma alanları orman ürünleri sektörlerinin en çok satış yaptığı faaliyet kollarının her iki yöre için de çoktan aza doğru, mobilya, inşaat, taşımacılık ve demir-çelik endüstrileri şeklinde sıralandığı belirlendi. Nihayet, bir birinden oldukça farklı nitelikler taşıyan Batı Karadeniz ve Doğu Akdeniz yörelerinde orman ürünleri işletmecilerinin hammadde temini konusunda karşılaşılan güçlükler ve sahip olunan avantajlar hakkındaki görüşlerinin oldukça homojen olduğu çalışma kapsamında tespit edildi.

Assessment of the completion of the forest cadastre considering the legal grounds, collaboration, and the use of technology: The case of Turkey

The forests are among the natural resources that have important economic, environmental, and cultural functions. However, global problems, which have been increasing each passing day, such as industrialization, increasing urban population, global climate change, and destruction of biodiversity also threaten forests. The first condition for the protection of forests and carrying out forestry activities is the demarcation of forest boundaries and the registration of the forests. The forest cadastre has remained a major issue on Turkey’s agenda for years. In this article, the process beginning with the demarcation of the forest boundaries until their registration in the land registry system was reviewed and assessed considering the institutional and legal frameworks and amendments, technology use, the collaboration between institutions, and the participation of the private sector. As a result of this collaboration, the General Directorate of Land Registry and Cadastre and the General Directorate of Forestry together with the participation of the private sector completed the forest cadastre of 6,246,845 hectares in eight years between 2010 and 2017. Moreover, the registration of 82.52% of these lands was completed. Besides, solutions were proposed for other countries experiencing the same problem within the framework of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Modeling the mediation roles in the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment of public sector forest engineers in Turkey

ABSTRACT Forest ecosystems are critical for achieving sustainable development goals. All forests in Turkey are managed and controlled by the General Directorate of Forestry (GDF) as a public organization. In order to achieve sustainable forest management, forestry activities include intensive operations involving reforestation, combating forest fires and smuggling, supervising logging activities, etc. Because of these rigorous forestry activities, forest engineers face a number of challenges in their profession. These problematic issues affect the 4,830 Public Sector Forest Engineers (PSFEs) in terms of organizational commitment (ORC) and job satisfaction (JOS). This study proposed to determine and reveal the underlying problems of the PSFEs’ perception of ORC and JOS using causal models. A large number of data were collected from 397 participating PSFEs in Turkey via applied questionnaire forms. Structural equation modeling (SEM) and bootstrap methodology were used to determine the main factors and analyze the relationships between latent variables and working conditions (WOC) and turnover intention (TOI) as mediators. The SEM results showed a direct positive effect (0.77) between the JOS and ORC of the PSFEs in Turkey. Positive WOC (0.153) and negative TOI (0.775) mediation roles were also revealed. The study indicated that the GDF administration needs to increase the motivation factors using incentive tools such as rewards, promotions, etc. and to reconstruct the WOC to decrease the TOI of the PSFEs. The developed models will contribute to the literature in terms of their availability and adaptability to different professions.

Financial Analysis of the State Forestry Organizations: Example of Turkey

In countries where the state is the main owner of the forest resources, forestry activities are carried out with allocated shares from government budget resources. In order to ensure effective and efficient use of financial resources and determine whether forestry goals and targets are achieved, it is necessary to perform financial analysis of public forestry institutions. In Turkey, where the state owns majority of forests, the General Directorate of Forestry (GDF) is the main responsible institution for the management of the forestry sector. This study aimed to make financial statement analysis of working capital budget of the GDF, by applying horizontal analysis, vertical analysis, trend analysis and ratio analysis. In this context, balance sheet and income statement of GDF for the period of 2015-2019 are analyzed. It is determined that in the given period, due to increase in “trade receivables”, “other receivables” and “inventories” accounts, total current assets have shown a positive trend. Also there is a steady increase in the equity, which can be considered as a positive development for the GDF. Gross sales and net sales amount doubled in the given period and, by keeping cost of sales and operating expenses under control, net profit of the GDF showed significant increase especially in last three years. Moreover, ratio analysis results revealed that GDF has capacity to satisfy its current and long-term liabilities and increased its profitability in the mentioned period.

Climate classification in Turkey: a case study evaluating Holdridge life zones

The Holdridge life zone (HLZ) method is applied to map potential vegetation types in Turkey. The HLZ map is compared to a map of actual vegetation in order to assess the degradation status of vegetation in Turkey. Data required to identify HLZ classes are provided by the General Directorate of Meteorology, while the current vegetation status is estimated with data provided by the General Directorate of Forestry. After weather data are cleaned and missing values are replaced, the HLZ type is estimated for each station, and then thematic maps are created using the ArcGIS software. The study reveals that there are 12 HLZ types in Turkey. The three dominant types are as follows: cool temperate steppe, warm temperate dry forest, and cool temperate moist forest. In regions where physical geographical controls change in short distances, the biodiversity is greater, and linked to this, the HLZ diversity also appears to be greater. Comparing the identified life zones to the actual vegetation, in some areas, remarkable mismatches can be found. Although, in some regions, the life zone type is consistent with the land cover type, in some narrow areas, the potential vegetation does not reflect features of the current vegetation cover. Considering limitations and capabilities of the assessment approach used in this study, we think that the incompatibility between actual and modelled vegetation types in the eastern region of Turkey is caused by the intensive landscape use. The goal of this research is to support future bioclimatic studies and land use management strategies.

The use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for Tracking Stock Movements in Forest Enterprise Depots

In forestry applications in Turkey, forest enterprise depots (FEDs) are permanent main places where forest products such as logs and round timbers are stored and presented for sale to the market. The principal functions of FEDs are receiving, classifying, protecting, preparing the forest products for the sales and tracking the stock movements. According to Communiqué No 288 on the Production of Fundamental Forest Products published by General Directorate of Forestry in Turkey, it is obligatory to conduct stocktaking twice a year in FEDs for tracking and controlling the stock movements. The capabilities of using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in tracking stock movements in FEDs have not been extensively studied yet in the current literature. This study aimed to test UAVs in determining volume of round timber storages inside a FED named "Göl", located in Gölyaka District (Düzce, Turkey). A UAV flight was conducted and volume of round timber storage was calculated from point cloud, and compared to stock records for validation of UAV-based measurements. It was found that UAV-based volume measurements of the stock were quite compatible with available stock records. This study concluded that UAVs could be used in tracking stock movements in FEDs in an effective way.

Factors Affecting the Behavior of Large Forest Fires in Turkey.

Fire behavior should be estimated accurately and multidimensionally to reduce the dangers and harmful effects of forest fires and to develop effective fire management strategies. Therefore, in this study, the most important factors affecting fire behavior were determined by statistical methods using data of 59 large forest fires that occurred between 1977 and 2017 in Turkey. Some data were obtained from the General Directorate of Forestry, and the remaining were obtained from meteorological stations and Google Maps. The large forest fires were investigated with descriptive statistics. Correlation, regression with generalized models, and factor analyses were performed. It was discovered that the rate of spread is particularly related to the wind direction, wind speed, and stand canopy. The most important factors affecting the behavior of large forest fires were determined as (1) stand age, (2) stand canopy, (3) wind direction, (4) wind speed, (5) altitude, and (6) aspect, and 76% of fire behavior is linked to these factors. Moreover, a forest fire behavior index (FFBI) was developed for large forest fires. They were categorized into three classes using the FFBI, and the characteristics of each class were identified. Finally, the findings were discussed, and suggestions for fire management were presented.

Ormancılık Sektörünün Ekonometrik Yöntemler Yardımıyla İktisadi Çözümlemesi (Orman Genel Müdürlüğü Örneği)

Economic rationality, defined as achieving a certain outcome with minimum spending, is important in ensuring the economic sustainability of the General Directorate of Forestry (GDF), which is responsible for the administration and operation of forests. Thus, the present study aimed to determine economic rationality, which is important for the sustainability of the GDF and statistically determine whether variables such as productive forest area, non-productive forest area, class wood revenues, etc., which have economic significance for forestry affect economic rationality. Study data were obtained from the GDF Directorate of Administrative and Financial Affairs, the Directorate of Enterprise and Marketing and the Directorate of Strategy Development. The main material included the 2013, 2014 and 2015 current capital budget data obtained from the GDF Directorate of Administrative and Financial Affairs. The analyses conducted for the presented years demonstrated that the economic efficiency of GDF was below 1 in only 2013. However, relational statistical analyzes were conducted between the 19 variables and economic rationality. As a result, 8 models were determined and the effects of the variables on the economic rationality of GDF were interpreted.

A Bayesian network model for prediction and analysis of possible forest fire causes

Possible causes of a forest fire ignition could be human-caused (arson, smoking, hunting, picnic fire, shepherd fire, stubble burning) or natural-caused (lightning strikes, power lines). Temperature, relative humidity, tree species, distance from road, wind speed, distance from agricultural land, amount of burnt area, month and distance from settlement are the risk factors that may affect the occurrence of forest fires. This study introduces the use of Bayesian network model to predict the possible forest fire causes, as well as to perform an analysis of the multilateral interactive relations among them. The study was conducted in Mugla Regional Directorate of Forestry area located in the southwest of Turkey. The fire data, which were recorded between 2008 and 2018 in the area, were provided by General Directorate of Forestry. In this study, after applying some different structural learning algorithms, a Bayesian network, which is built on the nodes relative humidity, temperature, wind speed, month, distance from settlement, amount of burnt area, distance from agricultural land, distance from road and tree species, was estimated. The model showed that month is the first and temperature is the second most effective factor on the forest fire ignitions. The Bayesian network model approach adopted in this study could also be used with data obtained from different areas having different sizes.

The Role of Traditional Livelihood Practices and Local Ethnobotanical Knowledge in Mitigating Chestnut Disease and Pest Severity in Turkey

The European chestnut population is enduring multiple compounding exotic pest and disease outbreaks across Turkey. The deeply held value of the chestnut species for the Turkish public is reflected in substantial government conservation programming. Chestnut is predominantly found on state land managed by Turkey’s General Directorate of Forestry (GDF), which generally upholds restrictive policies for chestnut-related livelihood practices other than nut collection and beehive placement. Such policies are justified by a government position that human activities and presence is likely to worsen disease dynamics. Conversely, a growing body of research findings testify that small-scale livelihood practices maintain biological diversity and, furthermore, that this traditional maintenance of diversity has been correlated with decreased pathogen pressure within agroecosystems. However, few studies have investigated this phenomenon in the context of agroforestry systems. At a global ecological moment of increasingly pervasive and severe exotic forest pathogen impact, this paper investigates the influence of diverse small-scale livelihood practices and knowledge on chestnut tree health across the highly heterogenous geography of Turkey. We conducted ethnobotanical questionnaires with 96 chestnut-utilizing households, and chestnut tree health evaluations in georeferenced forest areas they identified, throughout Turkey’s Black Sea, Marmara, and Aegean regions. Using data from 1500 trees, we characterized the effects of subsequently recorded environmental, physiological, and anthropogenic factors on tree health using multiple correspondence analysis (MCA), multiple factor analysis (MFA), and mixed models. Our results show that the traditional human management of tree physiology and ecology has a significant positive effect on tree health, especially through the acts of grafting and culling as well as the maintenance of diversity. We argue that conceptualizing such livelihood systems as human niche construction and maintenance can help forest management agencies to better understand and conserve valuable landscapes, even in increasingly common periods of severe pathogenic pressure.

Investigation of Relevance Between Landslide and Stand Areas on Open Source Web Map (Openlayers): Case Study in Trabzon Region

In recent years, the developments in computer technology are as effective in forestry as in many sectors. Open source web map based Geographic Information Systems (GIS) offer a significant advantage in investigating forest structure. When using in open source web maps, the relationships between the data of different features can be evaluated effectively and accurately. In this study, the relationship between online landslide data and online stand data was investigated by coding a web interface with OpenLayers which is one of the common open source web maps. OpenLayers based landslide areas and ArcGIS Web Services based stand areas have been evaluated in the solution process. The parameters of the landslide stands have been evaluated in a case study conducted in Trabzon Regional Directorate of Forestry. Landslide data were obtained from the General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration, while stands data were obtained from General Directorate of Forestry. The results indicated that most of the active landslide areas consisted of pure stands (26.71%), mixed stands (20.50%), and agricultural areas (38.51%). It was found that 14.29% of active landslide areas consisted of degraded forest and open areas while 38.51% consisted of agricultural lands. The results also indicated that stands with sparse crown closure covered 32.30% of the active landslide areas, while moderate and dense crown closures covered 12.42% and 2.48%, respectively. It was revealed that percentages of landslide areas were high in stands with low crown closure due to effects of heavy rain on the soil. It was also found that mostly tree species with narrow canopy and shallow root formation are subject to landslide incidents. This study suggested that OSWMs can be effectively used to investigate landslide activities in forest areas. It is anticipated that sharing open source data through online databases will provide great opportunity for practitioners and researchers in the field of forestry.

Degradation monitoring in Silvo-pastoral systems: A case study of the Mediterranean region of Turkey

To identify policies that will promote positive effects and mitigate negative ones of grazing is a major challenge in the Silvo-pastoral system. This paper presents the role of examining land-cover change trajectories by remote sensing imagery in grazing policy monitoring. The study was conducted for Duzlercami forest ecosystem located in the Mediterranean geographical region of Turkey and administrated by the General Directorate of Forestry (GDF) of the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs. Time series land-cover datasets from Landsat images between 1988 and 2016 were collected and classified. To link the conversions among trajectories and grazing policy, class level landscape metrics derived from the classified images were used. To validate the approach, yearly grazing-plans managed by GDF and populations of livestock were used. Results of this research have indicated that even though there is a yearly grazing plan, overgrazing can happen on the pilot site, and it can be easily identified by the destruction of woody vegetation. The notable correlation (r2 = 0.89) between degraded woody vegetation and cattle population has occurred in the last 30 years in the landscape, and Landsat imagery can effectively support the grazing policy mapping and monitoring.