General Decision-Making Style Research Articles

Relationship between dominant decision-making style and creativity of nursing managers: A cross-sectional study.

This study aims to investigate the connection between dominant decision-making style and creativity among nursing managers. The dominant style of decision-making nursing managers use definitely affects the quality of decisions. Also, in another way, it can develop a skill of creative thinking that may influence the entire health care system. Data from 229 nursing managers in four university hospitals were gathered using a cross-sectional study methodology and questionnaires about general decision-making styles and managerial creativity. nursing managers are highly creative. In general, the dominant decision-making style is rational and is correlated positively with creativity. Dependent style is the second one, while it is correlated negatively and significantly with creativity. Intuitive style is the third one and correlated negatively but is insignificant with creativity. Regression analysis revealed that only three styles have an effect on creativity: rational (positive), dependent (negative), and avoidant (negative), respectively. The most dominant style is rational, which has the highest effect, which is positive on creativity. The dependent is the second dominant style and has a negative effect. Whereas intuitive is the third dominant style and did not have any effect on creativity.

Individual decision styles as predictors for bias susceptibility and bias blind spots in managerial decisions

Purpose This paper aims to managerial decision styles, following the General Decision-Making Style Inventory, as potential predictors of individual bias awareness and bias blind spots, with a focus on the rational decision style. Design/methodology/approach The research is based on a survey of 50°C-1 level managers within Forbes 2000 companies. It explores their decision styles and their assessments of their own and others’ decision behavior. Findings The results show that the awareness of one’s own susceptibility to biases and bias blind spots is highly dependent on an individual’s (self-declared) decision style and type of cognitive bias; decision-makers with a strong tendency toward a rational or spontaneous decision style see themselves as less vulnerable to cognitive biases but also show a much stronger bias blind spot than those with a tendency toward other decision styles. Meanwhile, decision-makers with a strong tendency toward an intuitive decision style tend to recognize their own vulnerability to cognitive biases and even show a negative blind spot, thus seeing themselves as more affected by cognitive biases than others. Originality/value To date, decision styles have not been used as a lens through which to view susceptibility to cognitive biases and bias blind spots in managerial decision-making. As demonstrated in this article, decision styles can serve as predictors of individual awareness and susceptibility to cognitive biases and bias blind spots for managers.

Psychometric Study of Two Decision-Making Measures: The Melbourne Decision-Making Questionnaire versus the General Decision-Making Style Questionnaire

This study compares the Melbourne Decision-Making Questionnaire (MDMQ) and the General Decision-Making Style questionnaire (GDMS), two of the most widely used decision-making questionnaires in the literature, in a large age- and sex-weighted general population sample of 714 men (45.7%) and 848 women (54.3%) between 18 and 90 years old. The objective was to evaluate the convergent and construct validity between several aspects of these decision-making style questionnaires. The results indicate that the two questionnaires replicate the factorial structure of four and five factors reported in the original studies, respectively, through exploratory and confirmatory procedures in our cross-cultural context. The domains of both questionnaires that represent a strong or large correlation are Vigilance with Rational (0.50), and Hypervigilance, Buck-passing, and Procrastination with Avoidant (0.45, 0.52, and 0.60). A Structural Equations Model (SEM) between both questionnaires indicates that both latent factors formed by the domains of the MDMQ and the GDMS obtain a correlation of 0.96. It is concluded that the two questionnaires measure similar aspects of the decision-making construct.

Getting even: chasing behavior, decision-making, and craving in habitual gamblers

BackgroundDysfunctional decision-making and intense craving represent pivotal aspects across all addictive behaviors, notably evident in gambling addiction where these factors significantly shape chasing behavior—continuing gambling to recoup losses—indicative of problematic gambling. This study explores the correlation between chasing behavior, craving, affective decision-making, decision-making styles, and gambling severity among habitual Italian gamblers.MethodsOne hundred and sixty-six participants from diverse gambling venues completed assessments including the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), the General Decision-Making Style (GDMS), the Gambling Craving Scale (GACS), and a computerized task to measure chasing behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to Control and Loss chasing conditions.ResultsRegression analyses revealed craving as a predictor of chasing behavior. Interestingly, individuals with a dependent decision-making style exhibited lower tendencies to chase. While IGT performance correlates with chasing frequency, it is not associated with the decision to continue or cease gambling. Intriguingly, gambling severity (SOGS total score) did not feature in the final models of both regression analyses.DiscussionThese findings emphasize the significant role of craving in driving chasing behavior. Additionally, this study introduces, for the first time, the idea that a dependent decision-making style could potentially serve as a safeguard against chasing proneness.ConclusionsThe study suggests a fundamental dichotomy between chasers and nonchasers among gamblers, irrespective of gambling severity. This distinction could be instrumental in tailoring more effective intervention strategies for gambling disorder treatment.

Do Decision-Making Styles Predict Vagal Control? The Role of Resting Heart Rate Variability.

Decision-making styles are a habit-based propensity that drive behavior and affect daily life. Rational and intuitive decision-making styles have been associated with good mental health. However, the underlying mechanisms are not clear. In the last decade, high basal levels of heart rate variability (HRV) have been proposed as an index of health and emotional control, and this could be one of the variables involved in the effects of decision making on health. Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyze the capability of decision-making styles to predict resting HRV. A cross-sectional study was conducted in a sample of 199 (119 women) young university students, and a resting ECG was recorded to extract frequency domain HRV variables. Subsequently, participants completed sociodemographic data and the General Decision-Making Style questionnaire (GDMS). Results showed that the intuitive style predicted high-frequency HRV, while the avoidant style predicted less low-frequency HRV. This study presents new data on the relationship between decision-making style and HRV, suggesting that the intuitive style has a cardioprotective effect, while the avoidant style is related to lower HRV, which has been associated with health vulnerability. In conclusion, this study contributes to the understanding of HRV and its potential as a biomarker for cognitive styles that may improve health.

Comparison of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, decision-making, and attention control in individuals with sex addiction and normal people.

Sexual addiction as a neglected disorder requires investigation and exploration as it affects various aspects of individual's personal and social lives. Therefore, the current research purpose was to examine the afflicted individuals from the standpoints of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, decision-making styles, and the function of attention. The research population of this study included all students of Isfahan University during the academic year January 2020 to February 2021, and after the screening, a total of 200 individuals were selected as a research sample and divided into two groups: the group with sexual addiction and the healthy group. Subsequently, both groups completed questionnaires related to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Questionnaire (MHNQ), General Decision-Making Style Questionnaire, and Attention Control Scale (ACS). The results of multivariate analysis of variance showed significant differences between two groups, normal and abnormal, in the needs for safety and the need for respect from Maslow's hierarchy of needs, decision-making styles (intuitive, dependent, and spontaneous), and the focus maintenance of attention in attentional functioning (P < 0/001). The variables of physiological needs, belongingness, and self-actualization in Maslow groups, normal and abnormal, decision-making styles, and the subscale of attention switching in attentional functioning did not show any significant difference in the two groups. Overall, it appears that fixing (stabilization) in one category and returning (regression) in the stages of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, attention deficits including excessive or hyper-focused attention, malfunctioning in the decision-making process, and an impulsive, desire-driven approach, may significantly account for the difference observed between the two groups in these variables.

Can professionals "keep the tiller straight" in organizations? Resistance to reframing and decoy alternatives in workplace decision-making.

So far, little is known about the ability to contrast contextual bias as a protective factor in an ever-changing organizational environment. This study assessed whether professionals with different seniority can resist the reframing and the decoy effect under decision-making conditions and whether decision-making styles can predict the resistance to such covert influence tactics. To reach this aim, two groups of professionals divided into senior and junior professionals performed two novel tasks, a Resistance to Reframe Task (RRT) and a Resistance to Alternatives Task (RAT), which, by including ecological scenarios that represent typical decision situations that could arise in the company, can measure the resistance to such covert influence tactics. Decision-making styles were measured through the General Decision-Making Style (GDMS) and the Maximization Scale (MS). Results showed that all professionals were able to resist more to the reframing (at the RRT) than the decoy alternatives (RAT), without any difference between groups. In addition, higher GDMS-dependent subscale scores predict lower RRT scores, especially in the group of senior professionals. However, in the group of junior professionals, the GDMS-dependent subscale and MS high standards subscale predicted lower RAT scores. To conclude, this study showed that professionals know how to "keep the tiller straight" in organizations, especially when facing reframing conditions, rather than decoy alternatives; however, the predominance of dependent decision-making styles (for both senior and junior professionals) and the tendency to hold high standards in decisions (mainly for juniors) could undermine their resistance capacity and make them vulnerable to these covert influence tactics.

The mediating role of decision-making styles in the relationship between morningness-eveningness preference and gambling involvement

It has been reported that evening-types are related to several risk-taking behaviour, including gambling. Both morningness-eveningness preference and gambling disorders have been associated with specific decision-making styles. The present study aimed to assess the relationship among morningness-eveningness preference, gambling disorder, and decision-making styles. Three-hundred and seventy-four volunteers (31.93 ± 12.75 years; 43.30 % males) completed the reduced version of the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire, the General Decision-Making Style inventory, and the South Oaks Gambling Screen. The results showed that evening-types reported higher scores on the gambling severity especially for men, as well as on the Spontaneous decision-making style, whereas morning-types scored lower on the gambling severity and higher on the Rational decision-making style. The correlation analysis showed the associations between morningness-eveningness preference and gambling severity, Rational and Spontaneous styles, as well as the associations between gambling severity and Rational, Avoidant and Spontaneous styles. Mediation analysis demonstrated that morning-types were more rational, and, in turn, the Rational scale was negatively associated with SOGS. The analysis also showed that evening-types were more avoidant in their decision-making styles, and, in turn, this tendency to avoid decision-making significantly predicted gambling severity. The results are discussed with reference to circadian phase (and its changes) and amplitude.

Общие стили принятия решений: апробация русскоязычной модификации опросника GDMS

Background. Individual techniques, or decision-making styles, are included in the regulation of hierarchies of processes that mediate a person’s exit from situations of uncertainty. Diagnostics of these styles helps both to solve practical problems and to clarify theoretical issues — in particular, the issue of the generalization of styles and their connections with the intellectual and personal spheres. Objective. The aim is to test and adjust the General Decision-Making Style Inventory questionnaire to a Russian sample. Study Participants. 456 people aged 18 to 50 years (M = 24.80; SD = 7.61); of these, 74 were men (M = 22.96; SD = 4.88) and 358 were women (M = 25.25; SD = 8.08), 24 subjects did not indicate gender. 80% were university students, 20% were working employees. Methods. The study included 3 stages: translation, assessment of structural validity and reliability on a Russian sample, assessment of convergent validity. 4 questionnaires were used: the General Decision-Making Style, Rational-Experiential Inventory, Personal Factors of Decision Making (PFDM), Impulsivity-7. Results. A structural model of connections between the scales (factors) of the General Decision-Making Style Questionnaire has been constructed. The model demonstrated good fit to the data and Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients were acceptable (0.75 to 0.85). The convergent validity of the questionnaire scales was confirmed. Analysis of differences by gender revealed significantly higher scores for Intuitive and Dependent styles in women. Conclusions. The General Decision-Making Styles Questionnaire has a 5-factor structure and acceptable psychometric properties. Convergent validity has been demonstrated primarily for the Rational and Intuitive styles when identifying their connections with other similar constructs. Both styles are not related to each other, but are related in the opposite way to the Spontaneous (Impulsive) style.

Psychological features of business managers' decision-making in a situation of uncertainty

Introduction. The long-term global upheavals (economic crises, pandemics, wars) require a review of decision-making strategies by the management of business organizations. Aim. To identify the leading decision-making styles used by managers of small and medium-sized business in stressful situations and the styles’ impact on managers' job adaptation in war conditions. Methods. The study was conducted on a sample of 109 business managers and entrepreneurs using the Melbourne Decision-Making Questionnaire and the General Decision-Making Style Questionnaire. The individual psychological characteristics of business managers and levels of their adaptation were explored using S. Cohen's Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) (adapted by O. Veldbrecht and N. I. Tavrovetska), N. Carleton Intolerance to Uncertainty Scale (IUS-12)(adapted by G. Gromova), General Self-Efficacy Scale (adapted by I. Galetska), Life Orientation Test (dispositional optimism) (LOT-R) (adapted by S. Lukova), and a specially designed questionnaire (I. Syngayivska, H. Gura). Results. The leading business managers' decision-making styles during the first year of a full-scale war included mainly the rational, intuitive and spontaneous styles. The formation of managerial competence was accompanied by managers' readiness to make important decisions, which is manifested in managers' reluctance to use defensive reactions: avoidance, postponement, transfer of responsibility, and impulsivity. Maladaptive styles formed a symptom complex based on personal traits and tendencies rather than on cognitive characteristics. A comparative analysis of groups with different levels of adaptability (successful, problematic and super-successful) demonstrated the impact of different decision-making styles on job adaptation. In situations of uncertainty, the traditionally successful decision-making style, which was based on a thorough analysis of information, lost its adaptive value. Conclusions. The obtained results may be helpful for effective responding to challenges and sustainable functioning of business in crisis conditions.

Association Between COVID-19 Anxiety, Psychological Distress, and Decision-making Styles in Nurses of a Selected Hospital in Yazd Province, Iran

Background and aims: During the COVID-19 pandemic, nursing was known as a stressful occupation. This high work pressure and stress can make nurses susceptible to psychological consequences. The state of mental health of nurses can be effectively related to their job performance. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between COVID-19 anxiety, psychological distress, and general decision-making styles in nurses. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in a selected hospital in Yazd province in 2022. An available sampling method was used in this research, and 100 nurses were included in the study. Corona Disease Anxiety Scale, Kessler’s Questionnaire (K10), and Scott, and Bruce’s decision-making styles questionnaire were employed to collect data. The obtained data were analyzed using Mann-Whitney and correlation test in SPSS-24. Results: Based on the results, a positive relationship was found between COVID-19 anxiety and psychological distress (P=0.05, r=0.19). In this study, a positive correlation was observed between COVID-19 anxiety in nurses and spontaneous (P=0.008) and dependent (P&lt;0.001) decision-making styles. Eventually, psychological distress was significantly correlated with avoidant (P=0.005) and dependent (P=0.005) decision-making styles. Conclusion: Considering the importance of mental health and nurses’ job performance, it is recommended that measures should be taken to reduce anxiety and improve their mental health. Holding mental health training workshops and increasing social and organizational support can also be effective in this regard.

Use of default option nudge and individual differences in everyday life decisions.

People often make inefficient decisions for themselves and the community (e.g. they underuse medical screenings or vaccines and they do not vote) also because of their individual characteristics, such as their level of avoidance or anxiety. In recent years, governments have successfully applied strategies, called "nudges", to help people maximizing their decisions in several fields; however, the role of individual characteristics has been poorly explored. The present study investigated whether one kind of nudge, the default option (automatic enrolment in a specific plan), can modulate the influence of such individual differences, promoting favourable decisions in different field, such as the medical and civic ones. One hundred and eighty-three participants completed the Trait Anxiety Inventory, the General Decision-Making Styles Inventory and scenarios about health and civic decisions. Participants have hypothetically been enrolled by default or not enrolled in specific plans and had to decide whether adhere or not to the plan proposed. Result showed that the default option drives anxious and avoidant individuals, who usually refuse to make a choice due to their overestimation of negative events' occurrence, to undergo medical screenings and vaccine and to vote more. Nudge confirmed its effectiveness in favouring better decisions among people according to their individual differences.

Examining the decision-making style of managers and its effectiveness in the country's insurance industry

Undoubtedly, the main essence of any organization is the managers of that organization, and their decision-making has a significant impact on the movement and progress of organizations and forms the main foundation of the organization. The decision-making style of managers in the insurance industry is not only part of the vital pulses of this industry and insurance companies, but with these decisions facing a new cycle of the economic situation and the growing attitude of digitalization and developments, the importance and attention to this the issue has been noticed before and the future of insurance companies is influenced by the decision-making process of managers and determines its growth or decline. Therefore, in this regard, our hypothesis originates from the fact that the effectiveness of these decisions is so effective that it determines the achievement or non-achievement of the organization's mission, and we believe that in this article while taking a general look at the views of elders and let's examine the decision-making styles of managers and the effectiveness of general decision-making styles in the country's insurance industry. For this purpose, a sample consisting of 74 managers of the country's insurance industry was formed in 2022-2023 at different levels. And the sampling method is the general decision-making styles questionnaire of GDMS Scott and Bruce, 1995, according to the test reliability and validity of sample data and related analyzes based on the approach and effective performance of the decision-making style, which is considered a valid tool in this field. The results obtained in the insurance industry are the result of the insurance industry managers using Intuitive and rational decision-making styles are more confident in their decisions than dependence and avoidance styles, although with the rise of organizational levels, due to the type of facing the issues, these decisions become preferable with an immediate approach.

Disparities of Self-compassion and Job Satisfaction across Decision-Making Styles among Filipino Workers

Self-compassion and job satisfaction of Filipino workers across their decision-making styles are constructs of the present study being presented in the field of work. This paper aimed to identify the decision-making style; describe and measure the degree of self-compassion and job satisfaction; and determine the difference in self-compassion and job satisfaction across decision-making styles among respondents. The General Decision-making Styles Questionnaire (GDSQ), Self-compassion Scale, and Job Satisfaction Survey were administered to 359 respondents who aged from 28-60 years old, regardless of gender, across different companies in Calabarzon. The respondents were employees from entry level positions, supervisors, as well as executive level positions. Results have shown that rational, intuitive, dependent, avoidant, spontaneous, and dependent were the decision-making styles among respondents. The degree of self-compassion was at a high level (M=142.78, SD=21.16), while the degree of job satisfaction showed respondents’ ambivalence towards their job (M=3.51, SD=0.46). The Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) confirmed a significant difference (Fobt= 5.054**, p of 0.0001) in the self-compassion and job satisfaction across decision-making styles among Filipino workers and was validated by Fisher’s LSD as a post hoc test. Outcomes of the study is recommended as a basis in proposing intervention programs in human resource management and industrial psychology. Mixed-method research is recommended to strengthen the concepts of self-compassion and related variables in this study.

Decision-Making Styles and Managerial Creativity of Nursing Managers in Saudi Arabia: A Multi-Center Cross-Sectional Study.

(1) Background: Nursing managers as responsible personnel are required to think outside the box in order to make useful decisions using an appropriate style in a creative manner. This study aims to investigate the relationship between nursing managers' decision-making styles and managerial creativity. (2) Methods: A multi-center cross-sectional design was used to collect data from 245 managers in five large government hospitals using self-administered questionnaires on managerial creativity and general decision-making styles. (3) Results: A significant relationship was found between rational, avoidant, and dependent styles and total managerial creativity. A positive correlation was present between the rational style and total managerial creativity and a negative correlation was found between avoidant, dependent, and spontaneous styles and total managerial creativity. According to a regression analysis, the rational style has a positive effect on managerial creativity, whereas the dependent and avoidant styles have a negative effect. (4) Conclusions: The majority of nursing managers in various hospitals throughout the kingdom are creative and almost all use rational and dependent decision-making styles, which are significantly related to managerial creativity. Thus, it is important to continue to conduct training programs on decision-making styles, especially the rational, dependent, and avoidant styles, for the top-, middle-, and low-level managers.

The Association of Personality Traits and Decision-Making Styles among Arab Undergraduate Students in Israeli Universities

The present study aimed at investigating the relation between big five personality traits and decision-making styles among Arab undergraduate students in Israeli universities. Big-five Inventory was used to assess the personality traits and General Decision-Making Styles Questionnaire was used to assess the decision-making styles. 408 students took part in this study. A convenient sampling technique was followed to collect the samples. Descriptive statistics, t-test, one-way Anova and Pearson correlation coefficient test were the methods used to analyze the data. Findings showed that the rational decision-making style attained the highest value, while the spontaneous was the lowest. The agreeableness and the conscientiousness were the prominent personality traits among the participants. Findings showed that the rational and avoidant styles were significantly associated with all the personality traits. The dependent style had a positive relation with agreeableness and neuroticism. Whereas, the avoidant style had negative relation with extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness. The spontaneous style had a negative relation with agreeableness and conscientiousness, positive relation with neuroticism. The intuitive style had a positive relation with extraversion, openness to experience and neuroticism. The findings will help school counselors to shape students' personality and develop leadership qualities to take better decisions.

Decision-making style structure of Slovenian sports managers

Purpose: Decisions that we make are always burdened with consequences, which are the inevitable result of our decision-making. The decision-making style (DMS) is the way in which managers acquire, process and use information in decision-making processes. The goals of the present research are to define the factor structure of DMS for a sample of Slovenian sports managers and to determine the characteristics of their DMS structure. Methods: 80 managers of Slovenian sports organizations filled in an anonymous internet survey. The DMS was measured with the use of the General Decision-Making Style Inventory (GDMS), which was translated into the Slovenian language. The GDMS questionnaire measures five different decision-making styles: rational, intuitive, dependent, avoidant and spontaneous. The factor analysis (FA) method was used to test the assumption about the structure of the DMS. The internal consistency was measured using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to study the relationship between the DMS. Results: After three successive implementations of FA, we developed an optimized DMS model with 20 items confirming that when making decisions, sports managers use a combination of all five DMS. Slovenian sports managers mostly use the rational and dependent DMS, indicating that they are mostly rational decision-makers. We also recognized the correlation between the rational and the dependent style, but since the structure of the DMS in our sample is dominated by the rational DMS, we could conclude that this is a dependent-rational DMS, where mangers seek advice, opinions and knowledge from colleagues when making decisions to increasing their rationality. Conclusions: We can conclude that the recognized average structure of the DMS is functional and healthy; furthermore, Slovenian sports managers are on average rational decision-makers who, due to the specific organizational characteristics of sports organizations, look for confirmation and opinions on future decisions in the broader environment of the organizations' stakeholders.

Relationship between Decision-Making, Time Perspective and Stress

Abstract Decision-making is a process of gathering information, organizing, and making appropriate choices. Time perspective refers to the ways one perceives the past, present, and future. Every decision-making style dwells in one of these temporal orientations. Within the process of decision-making, there is likely to be some degree of stress. The current study explores the association between Decision-Making Styles, Time Perspective, and Stress among college students (n = 120). Tools used were the General Decision-Making Style (GDMS), the short version of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI-short), and the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). Results showed a significant association between decision-making styles, time perspective, and stress. Further, decision-making was found to be influenced by temporal orientations and stress levels. Furthermore, this article also proposes to discuss the application value of decision-making in the process of addressing the challenges associated with career and other real-life decisions.

The use of the Decision Regret Scale in non-clinical contexts.

The Decision Regret Scale (DRS) was assessed for its psychometric qualities in measuring decision regret in ordinary life scenarios. Although the scale has typically been used with patients and in the context of medical decision-making in earlier studies, this contribution shows that the instrument may have a variety of uses, retaining excellent metric properties even in non-medical contexts. The tool showed good fits with both the CFA and the gender Measurement Invariance. A non-probabilistic selection of 2,534 Italian university students was conducted. The internal consistency measures were found to be completely appropriate. Correlations with the General Decision-Making Style (GDMS) and Scale of Regulatory Modes were used to check for convergent validity (SRM). Convergence analysis showed that participants with higher regret scores were those who favored a rational decision-making style, while lower regret scores correlated with avoidant and spontaneous styles. With regard to the regulatory modes, the relationship between regret and locomotion was positive. Overall, the directions of association point to an interesting predictive measure of a person’s decision-making and self-regulatory orientation through the evaluation of regret using the DRS. The excellent psychometric properties found foreshadow a reliable use in various contexts where knowledge of post-decisional attitude becomes important: school, university, professional orientation, marketing studies, relationship choices, as well as for use in research.

Your Behaviors Reveal What You Need: A Practical Scheme Based on User Behaviors for Personalized Security Nudges

Since personalization was introduced to security nudges, several approaches using the correlations between the General Decision-Making Styles (GDMS) and nudge effects have been proposed. However, the GDMS-based schemes do not apply to real systems well since it is challenging, if not impossible, to obtain the GDMS without psychological scales. Instead, we propose a practical scheme that leverages users’ system-use behaviors to personalize security nudges. To verify the effectiveness of the developed scheme, we analyze the data collected through two between-subjects lab experiments (N1 = 312, N2 = 696). By comparing the efficacy of the behavior-based and the GDMS-based approaches, we find that the behaviors outperform the GDMS in accurately predicting nudge effects, and more importantly, the behavior-based personalization scheme is comparably effective and more robust in improving nudge effects. This confirms that the behavior-based framework can be a practical and promising solution when implementing personalized nudge schemes to improve security behaviors.